write a short article for publication in newspaper about endangered species

Endangered Species

Preemie Sharks Get by With a Little Help From an Artificial Uterus

Scientists manufactured a womb that could potentially help bolster populations of endangered shark species

Claudia Geib, Hakai Magazine

June 27, 2024

Endangered Wild Horses Return to Kazakhstan for the First Time in at Least 200 Years

The international effort, led by the Prague Zoo, released seven Przewalski’s horses to their native steppe habitat in central Asia

Christian Thorsberg

June 13, 2024

Between Dives, Orcas Take Only a Single Breath

A new study finds the black-and-white marine mammals tend to make shorter, shallower dives compared to humpback and blue whales, making orcas the "sprinters" of the ocean

May 30, 2024

How Scientists Are Protecting Plovers’ Beachfront Lifestyle

Camouflaged by the sand, these threatened shorebirds aim to hide from predators. Now conservationists are trying to give their breeding efforts a boost

By Alex Fox Photograph by Sarah Killingsworth

Endangered Ocelots May Be Expanding Their Range in Texas

DNA testing of an ocelot killed in 2021 raises the possibility that the creatures may be roaming outside their established South Texas territory, which is currently their only stronghold in the country

April 26, 2024

Scientists Clone Two Black-Footed Ferrets From Frozen Tissues in Conservation Effort

The aim of cloning the animals is to increase the genetic diversity of the endangered species

Will Sullivan

April 22, 2024

Peek Inside a California Condor Egg Just Before It Hatched, With This CT Scan of the Baby Bird

Last month, the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance welcomed its 250th California condor chick in its breeding program, and the CT scan helped determine the bird was well-positioned for hatching

April 16, 2024

A Michigan Hunter Thought He Killed a Large Coyote. It Turned Out to Be an Endangered Gray Wolf

Wildlife officials believe the animal was likely the first gray wolf spotted in the southern Lower Peninsula in 100 years

April 9, 2024

Adorable but Deadly Fluff Balls, Better Known as Pygmy Slow Lorises, Born at the Smithsonian's National Zoo

The two babies are part of an endangered species whose unbearable cuteness has made them a target for wildlife traffickers

April 8, 2024

Florida Fish Are Mysteriously Dying After 'Spinning and Whirling,' and Scientists Can't Explain It

The abnormal behavior has raised special concerns about the endangered smalltooth sawfish, an odd-looking ray with chainsaw-like teeth, as 28 of them have died

April 2, 2024

How Singapore Became an Unexpected Stronghold for a Critically Endangered Bird

Despite being the smallest country in Southeast Asia, the city-state is now home to the largest population of the straw-headed bulbul

Anne Pinto-Rodrigues

April 1, 2024

To Save Sun Bears, Scientists First Have to Find Them

The world's smallest bear plays a crucial role in repairing its tropical habitat in Southeast Asia

By Alex Fox Photograph by Sebastian Kennerknecht

April/May 2024

A Rare Gray Whale, Believed Extinct in the Atlantic for 200 Years, Has Been Spotted off New England

Scientists say a lack of Arctic sea ice due to climate change could have created a passageway for the mammal to travel from the Pacific Ocean

Catherine Duncan

March 7, 2024

Where Did Butterflies Come From? This Scientist Is On the Case

Akito Kawahara has spent his life devoted to lepidoptera. Now he’s correcting the record on where they first evolved

Richard Grant

Earth’s Migratory Animals Are in Peril, According to U.N. Report

The Convention on Migratory Species warns that many birds, mammals and fish face numerous threats, but they can be saved

Lina Zeldovich

February 12, 2024

The Dugong, a Huggable, Seagrass-Loving Sea Cow, Has a New Best Friend: Drones

Keeping tabs on the species' populations is surprisingly hard. A new aerial effort tracks the marks they leave behind

By Danna Staaf Photograph by Javier Aznar González de Rueda

Fifty Years After ‘Jaws,’ We’ve Learned a Lot About Great Whites

Though sport fishing tournaments and other activities led to population declines in the 1970s and 1980s, more recent science and conservation efforts have helped the sharks rebound

February 2, 2024

Nearly 1,000 Manatees Converge on Florida State Park to Keep Warm in Record-Breaking Sighting

The park's naturally heated waters drew unprecedented numbers of the marine mammals, which are especially vulnerable to the cold

January 30, 2024

World's First IVF Rhino Pregnancy Could Save a Nearly Extinct Subspecies

Only two northern white rhinos remain, but the new reproductive breakthrough may pull them back from the brink of erasure

January 26, 2024

Inside Elephant Seal Pups' Race to the Depths

While northern pups dive right in, their southern cousins take their time

Brian Handwerk

January 16, 2024

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Endangered and Extinct Species

The Last Stand of the Woolly Mammoths

The species survived on an island north of Siberia for thousands of years, scientists reported, but were most likely plagued by genetic abnormalities.

By Carl Zimmer

San Diego Zoo to Receive 2 Giant Pandas From China

The pandas, Yun Chuan and Xin Bao, will be the first to enter the United States in 21 years, the San Diego Zoo said.

By Jesus Jiménez

If You Give a Frog a Sauna, It Might Fight Off a Deadly Fungus

A fatal fungal disease has devastated the world’s amphibians. But the fungus has a vulnerability: It cannot tolerate heat.

By Emily Anthes

Unlikely Wild Animals Are Being Smuggled Into U.S. Ports: Corals

With the sea creatures making up a growing share of illegal animal seizures around the world, U.S. officials are working to overcome struggles to safely house them.

By Jason Bittel

Los pesticidas son el sospechoso principal del declive de las mariposas

Los insecticidas usados en cultivos de maíz y soya ejercieron el mayor impacto sobre el tamaño y la diversidad de las poblaciones de mariposas, según un estudio.

By Catrin Einhorn

New ‘Detective Work’ on Butterfly Declines Reveals a Prime Suspect

Agricultural insecticides were a key factor, according to a study focused on the Midwest, though researchers emphasized the importance of climate change and habitat loss.

A Tale of Two Nearly Extinct Giant Salamanders

While trying to save large amphibians native to Japan, herpetologists in the country unexpectedly found a way to potentially save an even bigger species in China.

By Rachel Nuwer and Chang W. Lee

In Search of the Lost Fireflies

There were no trees. There was no road. I was the trees, and I was the road. That darkness was like no darkness I’ve ever known.

By Margaret Renkl

Después de un siglo, una planta reaparece cerca de un arroyo en Vermont

El avistamiento en fotografía llegó por casualidad a los ojos de una botánica estatal de Vermont, quien no daba crédito.

By Jenna Russell

Missing a Global Climate Target Could Spell Disaster for These Polar Bears

One group in Hudson Bay might have roughly a decade left because sea ice is becoming too thin to support them as they hunt, according to new research.

By Austyn Gaffney

Advertisement

How does the Endangered Species Act protect animals at risk?

From bald eagles to alligators, this historic conservation bill has helped save iconic American species from extinction for 50 years.

The United States’s Endangered Species Act (ESA), signed into law in 1973, has helped revive the populations of nearly 300 species .  

The ESA protects animals that are classified under federal law as “endangered”—at risk of going extinct—and “threatened”—at risk of being endangered.  

2023 marks the ESA’s 50th anniversary. In half a century, the law has created legal pathways for federal and local governments to work together to save species such as the bald eagle , the American alligator , the Florida manatee , and the peregrine falcon .  

Most recently,   the wolverine , a type of weasel, was added to the ESA because its existence is threatened by climate change and the loss of its habitat.

Here’s how the ESA works, and why conservationists say it’s more important than ever.  

How endangered species are protected

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service are the two government agencies primarily responsible for implementing the ESA.  

To award a species ESA protection, these agencies take into consideration destruction to a species’ habitat, whether it has been over-consumed, threats from disease or predation, whether human actions put it in danger, and any policies currently protecting it.  

A federally protected species is typically listed with a “critical habitat” designation that outlines where ecosystems should be left untouched. The law also requires a research and management plan be formed to monitor a species’ population.  

It is illegal under the ESA to capture, hunt, shoot, or otherwise harm an animal that’s listed as endangered or threatened.

Conservation successes

Bald eagles are a poster child for the ESA and just one of the species to have seen tremendous population growth through conservation. In the 1960s, only about 500 bald eagles existed in the continental U.S. The birds ate fish infected with the pesticide DDT that was found in waterways. This chemical interfered with their ability to produce eggshells strong enough to hatch their young.

Captive breeding programs, habitat protection, and a ban on DDT helped restore bald eagle populations. Today, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates more than 300,000 bald eagles live in the U.S.

The ESA also played a critical role in restoring populations of American alligators. After facing threats to their habitat and being excessively hunted, there only an estimated 100,000 individuals thought to exist across the South. Today, there are over a million, and the alligator was removed from the endangered species list in 1987.

Some species status on the endangered species list is unclear—as populations rebound, many are facing intensifying threats from habitat loss or climate change.

The whooping crane, North America’s tallest bird, can only be found in the U.S and Canada. It's thought 10,000 once existed in a habitat that spanned from the Great Plains to the Gulf Coast. In 1941, just 21 cranes were still alive. Today, the population is over 500 and listed as endangered, but scientists are debating whether it should be reclassified as threatened, a move that would loosen restrictions on habitats some scientists argue are increasingly at risk.

Conservation challenges

Critics have argued that the act is expensive and ineffective because it protects   over 1,300 species . Several federal courts have heard and rejected arguments that the ESA is unconstitutional. Members of Congress have tried to weaken the law, and spending cuts to federal agencies have limited how effectively scientists can monitor species’ health.

In October 2023, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service officially removed 21 species from the ESA, saying they were likely extinct. Many had been added to the endangered species list in 1973 and may have already been extinct at the time they were listed.  

One species, the ivory-billed woodpecker, was last seen in 1944 but remains a hotly debated scientific mystery. Initially considered for delisting, the bird remains on the list as scientists continue to debate its survival.  

The ESA remains critical for protecting endangered species. Studies show the rate of extinction is increasing around the world . Nearly a third of plants and 40 percent of animals in the U.S. are existentially threatened, according to research done by the environmental group NatureServe.

In a press release announcing the 21 presumed extinct species, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service highlighted the important role the ESA plays of protecting species "before declines become irreversible."  

Related Topics

• ENDANGERED SPECIES
• BIODIVERSITY
• CLIMATE CHANGE
• HABITAT LOSS

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Endangered Species

Great Nicobar Island Is a Paradise in Danger

A container port the Indian government plans for this remote island threatens unique Indigenous cultures and biodiversity

Madhusree Mukerjee

How a Cloned Ferret Inspired a DNA Bank for Endangered Species

The birth of a cloned black-footed ferret named Elizabeth Ann, and her two new sisters, has sparked a new pilot program to preserve the tissues of hundreds of endangered species “just in case”

Deepwater Sharks Are Threatened by Demand for Liver Oil

One in seven species of deepwater sharks and rays is threatened with extinction because of the liver oil and meat trade and emerging fishing technologies that make it possible to catch deep-sea fishes

David Shiffman

Antarctica’s Penguins Could Be Devastated by Avian Influenza

Scientists are watching closely to see whether avian influenza will reach Antarctica before this year’s penguin chicks disperse for the season

Meghan Bartels

Which Lost Species May be Found Again? Huge Study Reveals Clues

There are 856 mammal, bird, amphibian and reptile species currently missing—but researchers continue to search

Daniel Shailer

Cats Kill a Staggering Number of Species across the World

Domestic cats are cherished human companions, but a new study shows the enormous breadth of species the felines prey on when they are left to roam freely

Jack Tamisiea

Golden Mole That Swims through Sand Rediscovered after 86 Years

The iridescent, blind De Winton’s golden mole was last seen in 1937 and later declared officially lost. But scientists have since rediscovered it by tracking its environmental DNA

Samantha Mynhardt, The Conversation US

Restoring the Planet Will Need More than a Climate Price Tag

We can’t put a price on a healthy biosphere. We must instead reorient our economy into one that values the living world

Chirag Dhara, Vandana Singh

Protecting Plants and Animals at Risk Must Start before They Need the Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species Act is an emergency measure turning 50 this year. Focusing on ecosystem preservation can keep us from ever needing it

The Editors

How AI Can Help Save Endangered Species

Scientists are using artificial intelligence to fight biodiversity loss by analysing vast amounts of data, monitoring ecosystems and spotting trends over time

Tosin Thompson, Nature magazine

Millions of Mosquitoes Will Rain Down on Hawaii to Save an Iconic Bird

Hawaii’s brightly colored honeycreepers are at imminent risk of extinction, and bacteria could be the key to saving them

Wind Energy Could Get Safer for Bats with New Research

Wind turbines threaten several bat species, but the Biden administration is funding research to reduce casualties

Minho Kim, E&E News

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Conservation of Endangered Animals and Protection of Their Habitats

• Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

• Published Papers

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section " Ecology and Conservation ".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 September 2013) | Viewed by 71749

Share This Special Issue

Special issue editor.

Dear Colleagues,

While the value of biodiversity is increasingly appreciated by society, the challenges to stem the losses in biodiversity remain extensive and the timescale short. The pressures experienced by animal populations in the face of global change due to natural and anthropogenic forces are often immense. Persistence of animal populations in the face of environmental changes that alter habitat quality due to climate change, human population pressures and development, invasive species, disease spread, and a myriad of other factors is the issue that confronts many researchers studying biodiversity. The conservation of endangered animal species exemplifies the complexity of the challenges of the future. We must deal with the biological intricacies caused by rarity in numbers in concert with the nuances of habitat conservation and restoration that are influenced by social, economic, and ecological factors. The essays in this volume will detail a diversity of approaches to the challenges with examples of success tempered by a sense of the enormity of future efforts.

Prof. Dr. John L. Koprowski Guest Editor

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Endangered Species

An endangered species is defined by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service as "an animal or plant species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range." In the United States, these animals can be listed under and protected by the Endangered Species Act. Endangered Species in the United States include the black-footed ferret and the California red-legged frog. The International Union for Conservation of Nature also keeps a Red List of Threatened Species, the most widely recognized list of endangered and threatened species. On this list, for example, are all the surviving subspecies of tiger, which range from endangered to critically endangered.

Latest about endangered species

Feral cats ate critically endangered baby crocodiles in Cuba, study suggests

By Caroline Tien published 10 May 24

Two biologists say 145 young Cuban crocodiles that were taken by predators in fall 2022 were killed by feral cats.

Smalltooth sawfish in Florida are spinning and beaching themselves in strange, mystery die-off

By Elise Poore published 10 April 24

Erratically thrashing and whirling smalltooth sawfish are stranding on beaches — and scientists don't know why they're behaving this way.

American burying beetle: The meat-eating insect that buries bodies for its babies to feast on

By Megan Shersby published 13 January 24

American burying beetle parents work together to find and bury a dead animal that its brood can consume after hatching.

Adorable but deadly little wildcat may be inbreeding at 'alarming' rates, study finds

By Jacklin Kwan published 11 January 24

Black footed cats are already a threatened species, and habitat fragmentation is now causing increased rates of interbreeding, placing them at higher risk of disease.

Hammerhead sharks are vanishing from their mountain homes in the Gulf of California, divers say

By Patrick Pester published 11 December 23

Scalloped hammerhead sharks used to seek refuge at two Mexican seamounts, but it appears fishing has killed them off.

Earless monitor lizards: The 'Holy Grail' of reptiles that looks like a mini dragon

By Patrick Pester published 4 November 23

Researchers are only beginning to understand the cryptic lives of the earless monitor lizards of Borneo.

10 times humans messed with nature and it backfired

By Sascha Pare published 5 September 23

History is peppered with times when our patchy knowledge of natural systems has led to questionable interventions with unintended — and sometimes disastrous — consequences.

Every year, dozens of female hammerhead sharks mysteriously convene in French Polynesia under the full moon

By Sascha Pare published 30 August 23

Every austral summer, Rangiroa and Tikehau atolls in French Polynesia host a mysterious assembly of female great hammerhead sharks — a critically endangered and typically solitary species.

Orcas rip rudder off boat and follow it all the way to port, in 1st known attack of its kind

By Sascha Pare published 6 June 23

Previous reported interactions between orcas and sailboats followed a clear pattern, with the animals losing interest and swimming away once they had broken the rudder.

Crocodiles and gharials are getting bizarre orange 'tans' in Nepal. Here's why.

By Sascha Pare published 5 June 23

Researchers think it could be down to where these crocs are hanging out.

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The long-tailed macaque and pig-tailed macaque are now endangered in the wild according to the IUCN Red List, which says exports for monkey research are partially to blame.

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Endangered Species Research (ESR) was founded in 2004 by leading ecologist Professor Otto Kinne as a major stage for publications on the ecology of endangered life, its requirements for survival, and its protection.

ESR has grown dynamically and is recognised as a central journal in this vital field. With its Editorial Board of acknowledged experts from around the world, it attracts papers on a wide range of subjects and species. It publishes Research Articles, Reviews, and Notes, as well as Comments/Reply Comments, Theme Sections and Opinion Pieces. (For more details see the Guidelines for Authors .)

Like all Inter-Research journals, ESR maintains the highest scientific standards in both manuscript review and production. All articles are published online with author-funded Open Access. Fees (Article Processing Charges - APCs) are very reasonable and special support can be applied for by authors from poorer countries (see ‘Open Access’ tab for details). The Impact Factor for 2022 (Journal Citation Reports 2023 Release) is 3.1 from 3244 total cites (5-year IF = 3.0), Immediacy Index = 0.8, Eigenfactor = 0.00243, JCI = 0.72, and Scimago ranks ESR in the first quartile in the categories 'Ecology' and 'Nature and Landscape Conservation'. ESR's strong presence in the Social Media is demonstrated by unusually high Altmetric scores — Altmetric reports that '…research outputs from this source typically receive a lot more attention than average'.

ESR aims at providing knowledge needed for practising human stewardship of the vast array of the earth’s species, many of which have become threatened, not least by human activities. Such stewardship has become vital for the future of the planet and is of primary importance for the long-term survival of Homo sapiens . While acknowledging that conservation has to occur at a landscape and ecosystem scale, there will always be a need to focus on certain species whose existence is in particular danger. ESR seeks to publish the best of such research that informs conservation or management.

ESR is international and interdisciplinary. It covers all endangered forms of life on Earth, the threats faced by species and their habitats and the necessary steps that must be undertaken to ensure their conservation. ESR publishes high quality contributions reporting research on all species (and habitats) of conservation concern, whether they be classified as Near Threatened or Threatened (Endangered or Vulnerable) by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) or highlighted as part of national or regional conservation strategies. Submissions on all aspects of conservation science are welcome.

We especially invite contributions that synthesise key areas. Suggestions for Theme Sections on emerging topics of importance are invited. All submitted manuscripts will be subject to a thorough review process involving at least three reviewers. Current acceptance rates are about 50%.

Please submit manuscripts through the online management system or via e-mail to the Editor-in-Chief via the ESR Managing Editor (for details consult GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS ).

Criticism and advice are invited (address to the Editor-in-Chief, Dr. Brendan J. Godley B.J.Godley(at)exeter.ac.uk ).

Production schedule

ESR volumes are built online, with articles appearing as soon as editorial modifications are approved by the authors. Production time (final acceptance to online publication) is 4-6 weeks. 

ESR encourages and facilitates the incorporation of essential supplementary material –– such as movies or oversize tables, figures or mathematics –– to assist authors in more effectively transmitting their research results.

High quality color illustrations are welcome and will be published without extra charge.

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ESR is published entirely Open Access (see the IR Open Access policy for details) under the Creative Commons by Attribution (CC-BY) Licence . Please refer to the ‘Open Access’ tab on the present page for pricing details as well as options for discounts and waivers for authors from certain countries. ESR does not charge authors for color figures or any additional page charges.

Authors, Reviewers and Editors must disclose relationships (e.g. financial, economic, institutional) that may affect the integrity of the scientific process. Please refer to our Conflict of Interest Policy for details.

Inter-Research journals are following the Committee of Publication Ethics advice on neutrality for editorial decisions. In brief, editorial decisions in Inter-Research journals shall not be affected by the origins of the manuscript, including the nationality, ethnicity, political beliefs, race or religion of the authors. Decisions to review, edit and publish shall not be determined by the policies of governments or other agencies, but just by the journals themselves, and are purely based on scientific merit of the submitted work and the work’s fit within each journal’s scope.

ESR is published entirely Open Access under the Creative Commons by Attribution (CC-BY) Licence .

The APC is based on article type and date of article submission, so the final APC price is already fixed for APC funding applications necessary prior to article submission.

The Article Processing Charges (APCs) are:

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Authors of studies originating from countries where limited funds are available for APCs can request to have the APC reduced or waived. Applications will be considered on a case-by-case basis, and will require the provision to Inter-Research of specific funding and other resourcing information related to the study. In general a study must have been funded to at least 50% by a country eligible for the Research4Life program or classified by the World Bank as low or lower-middle income. Please apply to Feewaiver before submitting your manuscript.

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Only articles clearly marked with "CC BY" in the top right corner of the front page are published with the Creative Commons by Attribution Licence. The CC-BY option was not available for Inter-Research journals before 1 April 2013. Articles marked "Open Access" or "Free Access" but not marked "CC BY" are made freely accessible to all users at the time of publication but are subject to standard copyright law regarding reproduction and distribution.

ESR is fully Open Access (author-pays model). 

All ESR articles are available online and are freely accessible to all users. As from Volume 29 (2015/16), the print version has been discontinued. Thus subscriptions are no longer available.

Back print issues are available for substantially reduced prices; for details write to the publisher.

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California frog reintroduction is rare victory against fungal pandemic

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How to help protect endangered species

As you read this, countless species are on the brink of extinction. We live in an era where global biodiversity faces threats that are caused in large part by human actions.

But there are things we can do to help. Individuals committed to conservation can take collective action to protect endangered species from extinction. Here we explore some practical strategies that you can implement in your daily life to protect endangered wildlife.

16 things you can do to help endangered species

Conservation efforts don’t just have to be spearheaded by large organizations—individuals can make a difference, too. The choices we make in our day-to-day lives can have a positive impact on threatened species. 

Buy products from sustainable sources

Choosing cruelty-free alternatives helps reduce the demand for goods that contribute to the endangerment of species. Avoid buying products made from animal skins, scales, ivory, or other endangered animal products. 

Though it can seem like a personal choice that only affects you, you directly contribute to wildlife conservation by actively purchasing from sustainable sources. 

If enough people make these choices, businesses will be encouraged to adopt ethical practices and invest in more sustainable alternatives. 

Advocate for conservation

Using your voice to bring attention to the plight of endangered species educates others and builds support for conservation causes.

This can be as simple as talking to your friends and sharing resources or links on social media, along with attending events, signing petitions, and writing to elected officials.

Not sure where to start? We have a list of active petitions that you can sign to help ensure your voice is heard—from helping to save North Atlantic right whales from extinction to forming a national biodiversity strategy. 

Avoid plastic use and littering, and recycle properly

Ensuring that you properly dispose of waste and recyclables can play a huge part in protecting the environment and animal populations. Recycling plays a pivotal role in breaking the cycle of plastic pollution by diverting materials from landfills and ensuring that plastics don’t end up endangering wildlife through ingestion or entanglement.

Beyond proper recycling, try to use alternatives to plastic products (especially single-use plastics). Products like metal straws instead of plastic ones, beeswax wraps instead of cling film, and reusable water bottles can all make a difference. 

Learn more about wildlife and educate others 

Empower yourself through knowledge. By learning more about wildlife and endangered species —and then sharing that knowledge with others—you can create a ripple effect of awareness.

IFAW is all about educating, sharing knowledge, and promoting collective action. Our blog is a great place to start if you want to learn more about conservation and endangered species. Learn more about endangered wildlife in Africa , Europe , Asia , Australia , North America , and South America , or take a look at our list of the world’s most endangered mammals or birds .

Support conservation organizations 

Supporting conservation organizations is a great way to protect endangered species. Donations provide crucial funding for research, habitat protection, wildlife rescue, and species recovery programs.

If you’re not in a position to provide financial support, there are other ways you can support conservation efforts. Identify organizations dedicated to causes you to care about, follow them on social media, and reshare their posts. This helps to amplify their reach and spread awareness. You can also look for volunteering opportunities at conservation organisations and wildlife centres in your local community.

Through these actions, you can support the collective effort to safeguard endangered species. 

Support policy initiatives that help animals

One of the most effective ways to protect endangered species is through policies prioritizing animal welfare and conservation. Many animals are already protected by law, and the more we can introduce legislation to protect threatened species, the better.

You can stay informed about relevant legislation and advocate for stronger protections for endangered species. Or try engaging with your local elected officials by expressing concerns and providing input on wildlife-related policies. You can also join or support organizations lobbying for effective conservation policies. 

Protect wildlife habitats

Individuals play a crucial role in protecting endangered species by safeguarding their habitats. Simple actions can make a significant impact, for example: 

• Letting your lawn grow provides a haven for important pollinating insects and small animals. 
• Planting native trees (and not cutting down existing ones) helps restore natural ecosystems. 
• Setting up water sources in your yard or garden aids local wildlife, especially during dry periods. 
• Planting native flowers supports pollinators, which is essential for the reproductive success of many species. 

You should also refrain from disturbing wildlife in your community. If you see a wild animal that appears orphaned or distressed, contact your local wildlife rehabilitation center for help. 

Participate in park, roadside, or beach cleanups

Participating in park, roadside, or beach cleanups is a direct action that can help you contribute to the protection of endangered species. Have a look to see if there are any community- or council-led cleanups in your area. 

Removing litter and waste preserves natural ecosystems, prevents harm to wildlife, and raises public awareness about the impact of pollution on endangered species and their habitats.

Host a community fundraising event

Organizing events like charity walks, auctions, or educational seminars can raise funds for conservation efforts. These events not only generate financial support but also help spread the word about the importance of biodiversity and conservation. 

Your event’s funds can be given directly to conservation organizations to support their efforts to conserve biodiversity.

Volunteer with an animal shelter or sanctuary that rehabilitates wildlife

Volunteering at a shelter is a hands-on way to directly contribute to protecting endangered species. 

Find an organization near you dedicated to wildlife rescue and rehabilitation and inquire if they’re open to volunteers. By dedicating your time and skills to these organizations, you can help with the care of animals while also learning more about the cause. 

Use alternatives to pesticides

If you have a garden, avoid using pesticides on your plants and vegetables. Opting for natural and eco-friendly pest control methods helps maintain a balanced ecosystem without harming non-target species. Planting native vegetation that attracts natural predators can also reduce the need for chemical interventions.

For more information, you can speak with workers at your local garden center to find a solution that will protect your harvest without harming native wildlife around your home. 

Travel sustainably and support wildlife-friendly tourism

The next time you take a trip, avoid booking a package holiday and instead think a bit more deeply about ways you can travel sustainably to help reduce the negative impact of tourism on ecosystems.

This can include wildlife tourism, like safaris or whale watching, but make sure you look into tour operators that prioritize conservation and animal well-being.

Here are some ideas to make your trips more sustainable:

• Opt for eco-friendly accommodations and tour operators that prioritize conservation practices.
• Choose destinations with responsible wildlife tourism guidelines, ensuring minimal disturbance to natural habitats. 
• Participate in educational programs and eco-tours that raise awareness about endangered species and their conservation needs. 
• Respect local wildlife regulations, keeping a safe distance from animals in their natural habitats. 

Follow vessel speed rules on the ocean

If you’re a boat owner or driver, it’s essential to always follow vessel speed rules. This isn’t just for your safety—it also protects marine life below the surface. 

Strict ocean speed limits help protect whales and dolphins, whose navigation and communication can be disrupted by loud ocean traffic . Faster speeds are also linked to vessel strikes, which can be fatal for animals in the ocean. 

Support habitat connectivity 

Urbanization of natural habitats may be inevitable in some places, but it can cause habitat fragmentation for already vulnerable wildlife populations. For example, fences that mark land boundaries can become obstacles to animals looking to move around their habitats. 

You may not realize that individuals can take action to help prevent fragmentation or even reconnect habitats. For example, you can plant hedges or native trees in your yard instead of building fences. 

Make your home wildlife-friendly

Making your home as wildlife-friendly as possible is especially important if you live in a rural or suburban area. You can do many small things that will have a big impact on local wildlife. For example, you can:

• Keep your cats inside, especially at night.
• Secure garbage in bins with locking lids.
• Stick decals on windows to deter bird collisions.
• Place bird baths outside, and replace the water often to avoid disease transmission.
• Add native plants to your garden, along with plenty of wildflowers for pollinators.

Visit a national park

Next time you have a day or a long weekend off, take the time to visit a national park, wildlife refuge, or protected area. These places provide safe habitats for thousands of endangered species. While you get the chance to experience and enjoy nature, you’re also financially supporting the park, helping them continue their good work. 

Plus, the more people who visit these parks, the more likely governments are to fund them. 

Help IFAW protect endangered species

Protecting endangered species is necessary for the ongoing health of our planet’s ecosystems.

Organizations like IFAW need help from people like you who are committed to helping endangered animals. Embracing sustainable practices, helping us advocate for policy change, and supporting our conservation efforts are ways you can help endangered species worldwide.

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Too few, too late: U.S. Endangered Species Act undermined by inaction and inadequate funding

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America, Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America

Affiliations Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America, Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America

• Erich K. Eberhard, 
• David S. Wilcove, 
• Andrew P. Dobson

• Published: October 12, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322
• Reader Comments

This year, the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity will meet to finalize a post 2020-framework for biodiversity conservation, necessitating critical analysis of current barriers to conservation success. Here, we tackle one of the enduring puzzles about the U.S. Endangered Species Act, often considered a model for endangered species protection globally: Why have so few species been successfully recovered? For the period of 1992–2020, we analyzed trends in the population sizes of species of concern, trends in the time between when species are first petitioned for listing and when they actually receive protection, and trends in funding for the listing and recovery of imperiled species. We find that small population sizes at time of listing, coupled with delayed protection and insufficient funding, continue to undermine one of the world’s strongest laws for protecting biodiversity.

Citation: Eberhard EK, Wilcove DS, Dobson AP (2022) Too few, too late: U.S. Endangered Species Act undermined by inaction and inadequate funding. PLoS ONE 17(10): e0275322. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322

Editor: Laurentiu Rozylowicz, University of Bucharest, ROMANIA

Received: June 10, 2022; Accepted: September 14, 2022; Published: October 12, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Eberhard et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All data are within the paper and Supporting Information files. The species data and appropriations data underlying the results presented in this study were collected from notices published by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and annual budget legislation, all of which are publicly available through the Federal Registrar ( www.federalregistrar.gov ). The author's accessed FWS Notices through the Service's Environmental Conservation Online System (ECOS), which organizes documents by species name. This data base is also publicly accessible ( https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/ ).

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Accelerating rates of species extinction are a matter of global concern [ 1 ] as exemplified in the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report that predicted the loss of over 1 million species in the foreseeable future, which will also have significant impacts on the delivery of ecosystem services [ 2 ]. The prevention of species extinction is a primary goal of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. In the United States, the strongest law to prevent species extinctions is the Endangered Species Act (ESA) [ 3 ], which has served as a model for other nations since its passage by the Nixon Administration in 1973. A longstanding concern of both supporters and opponents of the law has been the relatively low number of listed species that have successfully recovered to the point where they no longer need protection. In the 48 years since enactment of the ESA, only 54 US species have been declared fully recovered and delisted [ 4 ].

Multiple explanations have been given for this low rate of recovery including: (a) a pattern of not protecting species until their populations have reached very low levels, which increases both the time to recovery and the likelihood that species will vanish entirely due to environmental, genetic, and demographic stochasticity [ 5 ]; (b) a lack of incentives to landowners to participate actively in efforts to increase populations of endangered species [ 6 ]; and (c) inadequate funding for recovery actions [ 7 ]. Here, we have used data from the Federal Register to examine trends in the population sizes of species at time of listing and the levels of funding available to list and recover them.

Evidence that species are not being protected under the ESA until their populations have reached dangerously low levels was initially provided in a 1993 paper by Wilcove et al. [ 8 ]. The authors found that the median population size at time of listing during the second decade of ‘legal protection’ by the ESA (1985–1991) was just 1075 for vertebrates and 999 individuals for invertebrates. The median population size at listing for plant species was less than 120 individuals. We repeated their methodology to determine whether the US Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS) has become more proactive as we approach the 50 th anniversary of the ESA and roughly 30 years since attention was first drawn to this problem.

We also examined trends in the length of time between when a species is identified as potentially deserving of protection and when it actually receives that protection under the ESA (hereafter, “wait times”). It should be noted that, in recent years, most of the species added to the ESA have been the result of petitions from non-governmental entities to FWS requesting protection of a given species. Frequently, listing follows litigation brought by environmental organizations when petition decisions are overdue or petitions are denied [ 9 ].

Finally, we examined trends in funding for the listing and recovery of imperiled species (we use “imperiled” to include both Endangered and Threatened species protected under the ESA, and, unless indicated otherwise, we use the word “species” to refer to any entity protected under the ESA, including subspecies and vertebrate populations). We give particular attention to trends in funding per species , in order to account for changes in the number of species listed each year.

Materials and methods

The list of plants and animals granted protection under the ESA was collated from annual listing records available through the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s Environmental Conservation Online System (ECOS). Population data were obtained from Final and Proposed Listing Notices issued by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Our analysis was restricted to wild populations of plants and animals known to occur in the United States and its territories and did not include captive populations.

When presented with a range of values, or an upper limit, for the total number of individuals or populations at time of listing, we favored interpretations that maximized population size. For example, if a population was said to be “between 500 and 1000” individuals, we recorded the population as being 1000 individuals at time of listing. Similarly, a population said to be “<1000” was recorded as being 999 individuals at time of listing. This was done in order to obtain the largest possible estimate of each plant and animal population at time of listing, making our subsequent analyses an optimistic “best case scenario”. Six species were listed with no known individuals or populations surviving in the wild. In these instances, the total number of individuals or total number of populations was recorded as being zero. Population data for plants and animals listed between 1985–1991 were obtained from Wilcove et al. in order to facilitate comparison with their results. We performed a non-parametric Wilcoxon Rank-sum Test to compare the medians of continuous variable x , the number of individuals at time of listing for species listed between 1985–1992, and continuous variable y , the number of individuals at time of listing for species listed between 1993–2020. The same approach was used to compare the median number of populations at time of listing for each time period. We adopted a significance threshold of p = 0.05.

Data for Resource Management Appropriations (discretionary funding that supports the management and recovery of imperiled species by FWS) and Section 4 Appropriations (funding allocated specifically to ESA listing activities) were obtained from the text of annual federal budget legislation and corrected for inflation to 2019 USD. These documents are publicly accessible through the Federal Registrar . Funding per species was defined as the average funding available for the management of each species in a given year. We calculated this value by dividing annual Resource Management Appropriations by the total number of species protected under the ESA as of the first day of that calendar year.

From 1992–2020, the FWS listed a total of 970 species for protection under the ESA; 68% of these listings were plants, 18% were invertebrates, and 14% were vertebrates. Full species accounted for the majority of listings during this period (80%). Of the species listed, 602 had data on their total population size (total number of individuals) at time of listing, and 843 had data on the number of populations at time of listing. For each taxonomic group analyzed, the total population size at time of listing ( Fig 1A ) did not differ significantly between the 1985–1991 and 1992–2020 time periods (Wilcox Test values of p = 0.08, p = 0.41, and p = 0.66, for plants, vertebrates and invertebrates respectively). For plants and invertebrates, the total number of populations at time of listing ( Fig 1B ) also did not differ significantly between the 1985–1991 and 1992–2020 time periods (p = 0.91 and p = 0.06, respectively). However, the median number of vertebrate populations at time of listing was slightly greater in the 1992–2020 time period, increasing from 2 to 4 populations (p = 0.04).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

(A) Comparison of population size at time of listing for plants and animals. There are no significant differences between the two periods (Wilcox Test values of p = 0.08, p = 0.41, and p = 0.66, for plants, vertebrates and invertebrates respectively). (B) Comparison of number of populations at time of listing. There are no significant differences between the two periods for plants and invertebrates. Values of zero indicate species for which there were either no known individuals or no known populations at time of listing. Median values shown above each plot.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322.g001

Our analysis revealed longer wait times for species petitioned for listing during the 2000–2009 period (median = 9.1 years), compared to those petitioned for listing during the 1992–1999 period (median = 5.9 years), followed by shorter wait times for species petitioned for listing during the 2010–2020 period (median 3.0 years). The number of petitions received during each period also varied greatly ( n = 49, 203 and 26 for 1992–1999, 2000–2009 and 2010–2020, respectively). While wait times seem to decrease when fewer species are listed, there are insufficient data to test whether this effect is significant.

Resource Management Appropriations climbed modestly from 1996–2010 before beginning a decade-long decline that was halted only in 2020 ( Fig 2A ). The same trend is observed in Section 4 Appropriations, which peaked in 2010 at $25.9 million USD before dropping to $20.1 million USD by 2020. Concurrently, the number of species listed for protection under the ESA increased by over 300% between 1985–2020. As such, Resource Management Appropriations, when measured on a per species basis, have dropped by nearly 50% since 1985.

(A) Change in cumulative number of ESA listings compared to change in Resource Management Appropriations. The lower timeline illustrates political control of the Presidency and, by a majority, each house of Congress. (B) Number of species delisted for various reasons.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322.g002

Our analysis of trends in the protection of imperiled species under the US Endangered Species Act warrants a limited amount of optimism and a larger amount of pessimism: Most species are not receiving protection until they have reached dangerously low population sizes. First reported in 1993, this pattern has persisted throughout the intervening quarter century. We suspect that most of the species listed since 1993 had fallen to low population levels well before the time span of our study, a reflection of past anthropogenic activities. Their protection under the ESA implies a painfully slow process of clearing a backlog of rare but unprotected species as opposed to a failure to respond to recent, rapid population declines in formerly more common species.

The wait-times between when a species is first petitioned for protection under the ESA and when it finally receives that protection have waxed and waned since 1992. The period with the longest median wait time (2000–2009, with a median wait-time of 9.1 years), was also the period when the greatest number of petitions were received by FWS ( n = 203). The period with the shortest median wait time (2010–2020 with a median wait-time of 3.0 years) was the period when the fewest number of petitions were received ( n = 26). This suggests that wait times may be exacerbated when limited resources for listing are strained by a large influx of petitions. Consistently, very few species have received protection in the two-year period that is prescribed in the ESA. For species with very small or rapidly declining populations, a multi-year delay in receiving protection increases the risk of extinction.

Our data suggest that inadequate funding has persisted for decades, with no clear relationship as to which political party is in power ( Fig 2A ). The unfortunate conclusion is that FWS is being asked to do more with less resources. The combination of delays in listing rare species, the typically mall population sizes of species at time of listing, and inadequate funding for recovery actions, are the key factors that can explain the relatively small number of listed species that have fully recovered ( Fig 2B ). Resource allocation frameworks and other decision-support tools can help FWS make the most efficient use of the funds it receives [ 10 ], but increased funding is essential for sustained, substantial progress in protecting imperiled species [ 11 , 12 ]. Studies have shown that government expenditures for imperiled species management do contribute to an improvement in recovery status and averted extinctions [ 13 ].

Although the US is one of only a handful of nations that have failed to ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity, its commitment to preventing the loss of its own “non-voting” species dates back nearly half a century to the passage of the ESA in 1973. In December 2022, when international leaders gather in Montréal, Canada for the 15 th meeting of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the failure of the US to have solved the funding gaps that hamper the ESA will stand as a stark reminder of the difference between a visionary promise and its functional implementation.

Supporting information

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322.s001

• View Article
• PubMed/NCBI
• Google Scholar
• 2. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, (IPBES). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Secretariat. 2019. Available from: https://ipbes.net/global-assessment
• 3. United States. The Endangered Species Act, Public Law 93–205, Section 3. Washington D.C. 1973.

Endangered species protections kick in too late, study finds

The Endangered Species Act’s protections often kick in too late to fully recover the declining populations of animals, plants and insects it is designed to help, according to a study published in the journal PLoS ONE on Wednesday. 

The researchers who evaluated some 970 cases involving the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service over the past three decades found that species remained on waiting lists for protection far longer than the act intends. When species are finally listed as endangered or threatened, their populations are often so small that they struggle to fully recover. 

The study suggests that the Endangered Species Act, a bedrock tool of conservation, has become bogged down by delays and inaction that are hampering its mission.  

“Since it was passed in 1973, the Environmental Species Act has served as an inspiration and model for conservation policy,” said Erich Eberhard, a doctoral student at Columbia University and an author of the research. “Our analysis suggests its strength is being undercut by listing too late with too small populations and too little funding.” 

The slow process to list species has rankled conservation organizations for years. 

Decisions on whether species should be listed are supposed to take two years, according to Noah Greenwald, the endangered species director at the Center for Biological Diversity. But the study found that they typically exceed that timeline no matter which political party is in charge. 

And since Congress enacted the act, just 54 species have been fully recovered, the study says. Additional species have seen their status changed from endangered to threatened. 

“If you wait until species are critically endangered, it’s that much harder to recover them, and it makes recovery less likely and makes the choices that much harder,” Greenwald said. “Species are slipping through the cracks.”

The new study builds upon research that began decades ago in a study that analyzed species listed from 1985 through 1992. 

The new study, which reported data from 1993-2020, borrowed the same methods to collect and evaluate data about the size of species’ populations at the time they were listed under the Endangered Species Act.

In comparing the two time periods, the researchers found little had changed. The Fish and Wildlife Service is currently no more proactive about listing species before their numbers dwindled than it had been during the late 1980s. 

The Fish and Wildlife Service did not respond to a request for comment about the new study. Although few species have fully recovered and been delisted, it’s important to remember that the Endangered Species Act has been instrumental in preventing extinction, Greenwald said. 

“99% of species protected under the Endangered Species Act still survive, which is highly significant,” he said. “In a lot of ways it is working. That’s despite underfunding, despite political interference and despite what I would consider an inept agency in charge of implementing it.”

Species extinction is accelerating worldwide. A U.N. report on biodiversity found that 1 million species will face extinction, many within the next decades, unless more action is taken. Humans are the primary drivers of biodiversity change and the pace of extinction was accelerating, the report said.

Evan Bush is a science reporter for NBC News. He can be reached at [email protected].

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Protecting Endangered Species

Still Only One Earth: Lessons from 50 years of UN sustainable development policy

Despite continued conservation efforts, the status of many endangered species remains unchanged. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) are the primary treaties tasked with protection of endangered species. But moving forward, species conservation efforts should expand to include lesser known species that serve important ecosystem services. ( Download PDF ) ( See all policy briefs ) ( Subscribe to ENB )

The Persian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana), the largest subspecies of leopards, used to roam widely across Central Asia and the Caucasus. They are large spotted cats—about five feet in length—with slender hindquarters and long, thick tails. Both male and female leopards lead solitary lives, though they come together during winter mating. They are very territorial, patrolling wide home ranges to scent-mark trees, shrubs, and rocks. The leopard inhabits a wide variety of habitats: from mountain crags up to 3,000 meters in elevation, to grasslands and cold desert ecosystems, with a preference for cliff and rocky areas, as well as juniper and pistachio woodlands that give them cover for hunting.

During the past century, human-wildlife conflict, indiscriminate killing of their prey, habitat loss, and bounties incentivizing their killing have reduced their historic range by 72-84% (Jacobson et al., 2016). Today, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species—the world’s most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of species and subspecies, which uses a set of defined criteria to evaluate their extinction risk (Rodrigues et al., 2006)—the Persian leopard is endangered.

The story of the Persian leopard is the story of many species pushed by human action to the brink of extinction. Strong conservation measures can still reverse the course for some species. For many others, it is too late.

During the past century, human-wildlife conflict, indiscriminate killing of their prey, habitat loss, and bounties incentivizing their killing have reduced the leopard’s historic range by 72-84% JACOBSON ET AL., 2016

The foundations of global species conservation measures date back to the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment . Principle 2 of the Stockholm Declaration says “the natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations.” Principle 4 reads “Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors.”

Among the 109 recommendations found in the Stockholm Action Plan , Recommendation 99 calls for the preparation and adoption of an international treaty to regulate international trade in certain species of wild plants and animals. This treaty, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), had been drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN. As a result of the push provided by the Stockholm Conference, the Convention was finally adopted at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C. on 3 March 1973.

There are a few other relevant recommendations. Recommendation 29 draws attention to species of wildlife that may serve as indicators for future wide environmental disturbances. Recommendation 30 emphasizes drawing attention to the situation of animals endangered by their trade value. The Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan also legitimized the role of IUCN and especially the Red List, which had been established in 1964. In fact, IUCN was one of the few environmental organizations formally involved in the preparations of the Stockholm Conference and in the drafting and implementation of the three conventions that followed it: the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), CITES, and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1971).

What are Endangered Species: The Role of the IUCN Red List

Since its establishment, the IUCN Red List has been the key tool to assess the status of species and catalyze action for conservation and policy change. Through the List’s rigorous assessment processes, experts linked to the IUCN Species Survival Commission’s specialist groups collect information on a species’ range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and conservation actions that inform necessary conservation decisions.

The assessments published in the IUCN Red List are used by governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and multilateral environmental agreements. The assessments drive conservation action and funding, albeit still in insufficient ways to always ensure saving species. In fact, Betts et al. (2020) noted that without successful communication between species experts, academics, policymakers, funders, and practitioners, IUCN Red List assessments may not lead to development and implementation of conservation action plans.

The IUCN Red List has nine categories to indicate how close a species is to becoming extinct. The closest to extinction is the “critically endangered” category, with a species example being the Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus), a subspecies found only in Iran that has dwindled to fewer than 50 animals remaining in the wild. The least critical category is defined as “least concern.” For example, the global brown bear (Ursus arctos) population is considered to be of “least concern” because it is large and spread over three continents, even though there are some local populations that are under threat. The categories in the middle, i.e., “vulnerable” and “endangered,” are for species considered under threat.

In other words, if a species is either critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable, it is in popular terms “endangered.”

This mismatch between the technical terms of the IUCN Red List and common language can lead to confusion. In 2016, a re-assessment of the snow leopard prompted an outcry from some members of the conservation community due the species’ being reclassified from endangered to vulnerable (McCarthy et al., 2016). Their anger was echoed by members of the public, in part because they did not understand “being vulnerable” under IUCN Red List criteria still means at high risk of extinction.

The way a species is assessed under the IUCN Red List can also determine whether such species deserve protection under two international treaties aimed at species conservation: CITES and the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). Listing an endangered species under either of these two conventions can catalyze further action and, possibly, save a species from extinction (Zahler & Rosen, 2013).

Without successful communication between species experts, academics, policy makers, funders, and practitioners, IUCN Red List assessment may not lead to development and implementation of conservation action plans. BETTS ET AL. (2020)

Regulating the Protection of Endangered Species

CITES and CMS are the key conventions tasked with regulating protection of endangered species.

CITES regulates international trade and therefore looks at the impact of trade on species conservation. Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to include hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens. The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals and plants to an array of products derived from them, including food, exotic leather goods, wooden musical instruments, timber, tourist curios, and medicines. Since trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from over-exploitation. Today, CITES accords varying degrees of protection to more than 37,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats, or dried herbs (CITES, n.d.)

In the language of CITES, species listed under Appendix I are considered threatened with extinction and afforded the highest level of protection, including restrictions on commercial trade. Examples of the 931 species currently listed under Appendix 1 include gorillas (Gorilla sp.), tigers (Panthera tigris), and snow leopards (Panthera uncia). Appendix II includes species that, while currently not threatened with extinction, may become so without trade controls. It also includes species that resemble other listed species and must be regulated to effectively control the trade in those other listed species. Currently 34,419 species are listed under Appendix II, including saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), wolf (Canis lupus), argali sheep (Ovis ammon), and kiang (Equus kiang). Appendix III includes a list of wildlife and plant species identified by particular CITES parties as being in need of international trade controls.

The purpose of CMS is conservation of migratory species, their habitats, and migration routes. “Migratory” is broadly defined as species that straddle international borders (Lewis & Trouwborst, 2019). Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed in Appendix I of the Convention. Appendix I listing is a mechanism to promote conservation measures called, in CMS terminology, “Concerted Action” among the range states of the listed species. CMS parties commit to ensure strict protections under national laws and conserving their habitats, mitigating obstacles to migration, among other threats. Migratory species viewed as benefiting from international cooperation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention (CMS, n.d.). To date, seven specialized regional agreements and 19 memoranda of understanding have been concluded for Appendix II species under the CMS.

Representative Frameworks for the Conservation of Endangered Species

The development of models tailored to conservation needs throughout migratory ranges is a unique feature of the CMS. Along these lines, there are two important initiatives benefiting endangered species in Africa and Central Asia under the CMS umbrella.

One is the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI) and its associated Programme of Work. Established in 2014, CAMI aims to strengthen the conservation of Central Asian migratory mammals through a common framework to coordinate conservation activities in the region and coherently address major threats to migratory species. By developing an initiative for Central Asian mammals, CMS is catalyzing collaboration between all stakeholders, with the aim of harmonizing and strengthening the implementation of the Convention (Rosen & Roettger, 2014). One of the most recent projects under CAMI is the proposed development of a regional strategy for the conservation of the Persian leopard.

The Joint CITES-CMS African Carnivores Initiative (ACI), established in 2017, stems from the recognition of the importance of synergies and coordination of measures toward species that are protected under both Conventions. Supported by IUCN Species Survival Commission ’s specialist groups, the Secretariats are tasked to drive effective conservation of African lion, leopard, cheetah, and wild dog, and help avoid duplicate activities and associated costs, and generate funding.

By developing an initiative for Central Asian mammals, CMS is catalyzing collaboration between all stakeholders, with the aim of harmonizing and strengthening the implementation of the Convention ROSEN & ROETTGER, 2014

There are also two other important frameworks, each focused on the conservation of single species. One is the Global Tiger Initiative Council (GTIC), and the other is the Global Snow Leopard Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP).

GTIC was originally set up as the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI), a global alliance of governments, international organizations, NGOs, and the private sector, with the goal to save tigers from extinction. Established by the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Smithsonian Institution, Save the Tiger Fund, and International Tiger Coalition (representing more than 40 NGOs), the initiative is led by the 13 tiger range countries. The St. Petersburg Declaration , adopted in 2010 at the Tiger Summit in Russia, defines the priorities.

GSLEP, propelled by GTI and established in 2013, is driven by 12 snow leopard range states, NGOs, and international organizations, which sit on a steering committee. The foundation of the GSLEP is 12 individual National Snow Leopard and Ecosystems Priorities (NSLEPs). Under GSLEP, specific activities are grouped under broad themes that correspond to the commitments of the Bishkek Declaration adopted at the 2013 Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum (Zakharenka et al., 2016).

Some of these initiatives have successfully catalyzed attention, resources, and conservation action. They have received a high level of political attention, especially GTI in Russia and GSLEP in Kyrgyzstan, as respective hosts of the Tiger Summit and Snow Leopard Forum. However, some conservationists argue, especially in relation to tigers, that results have fallen short, and lack of transparency and accountability is compromising progress in tiger conservation efforts. Slappendel (2021) writes that “tiger-range countries are responsible for making tiger conservation efforts and holding themselves accountable for their methods and results. There’s no authority above them, so they can do whatever they want.

While the reach and influence of CAMI and ACI are more limited compared to GTI and GSLEP, they have also generated important resources for conservation and could likely have a stronger policy-driving role in the future.

Generally, these four frameworks serve as important examples for directing donor resources.

The Role of UN Agencies and Donors

The GEF, established in 1992, is the largest multilateral fund focused on enabling developing countries to invest in nature. It supports the implementation of major international environmental conventions including on biodiversity, climate change, chemicals, and desertification. Endangered species prioritized under CITES and CMS, such as GTI and GSLEP, are also prioritized for GEF funding.

In 2010, the GEF indicated it would provide up to USD 50 million in grants to save the tiger through contributions to be invested by developing countries using their GEF allocations in biodiversity, supplemented by investments from its REDD+ Program (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable use of forests, and enhancement of carbon stocks) (GEF, 2010). Since 1991, the GEF has invested nearly USD 100 million toward snow leopard projects implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The GSLEP Forum in 2013 catalyzed nine further GEF-financed, UNDP-implemented projects, representing an investment of about USD 45 million to support snow leopard range countries. These nine projects also leveraged over USD 200 million in co-financing from national and international partners (UNDP, 2016).

UNDP has emerged as one of the key implementing UN agencies when it comes to endangered species and conservation projects more broadly. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has also spearheaded initiatives for the conservation of endangered species, such as Vanishing Treasures . This EUR 9 million project, funded by the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, seeks to better understand the vulnerability to climate change of the snow leopard, tiger, and gorilla and the ecosystems being affected.

Why Do Many Species Continue to be Endangered?

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) warned in its Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services that “nature is declining globally at rates unprecedented in human history—and the rate of species extinctions is accelerating” (IPBES, 2019).

Despite continued conservation efforts, the status of many endangered species remains unchanged—including tigers, lions, and cheetahs. The question is: Why? With our growing knowledge of the fragility of the planet’s ecosystems, why are we pushing entire species out of existence?

The limited amount of funding benefiting species research and conservation is one reason. Often these funds are short term, whereas to really see progress and results, a longer funding commitment is necessary. Some projects are also too narrowly focused on protection and enforcement, without seeking ways local communities can be part of the solution. Likewise, some projects do not address root causes of decline.

But there are also issues of capacity. In many countries that provide habitat for endangered species, there is limited technical capacity to protect such species. Local and national conservation organizations also would benefit from greater capacity building.

At the national level, species conservation may not be prioritized. This is often reflected in ministries tasked with both environment and agriculture or economic and mining issues—with the latter issues prioritized over conservation. Species conservation also does not operate in a vacuum, but must be considered alongside mechanisms to address threats to their survival, which may be exacerbated by conflicting development goals. For example, a development project aimed at improving access to water, through building dams and irrigation channels, may hurt access by salmon species to spawning grounds or damage riparian habitat. Finally, conservation organizations—with their own agendas and issues of competition for funding that leads to lack of cooperation—sometimes fail to create better synergies for conservation.

There are also many other endangered species that are not as well known or do not have the appeal of more popular endangered species, such as snow leopards or tigers. Some of these species have disappeared from large swaths of their range, including the striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), which can no longer be found in parts of Central Asia and Caucasus regions. The lesser-known Saint Lucia racer (Erythrolamprus ornatus), listed as Critically Endangered, numbers fewer than 20 individuals and is considered one of the rarest snakes in the world. Similarly, the Daguo Mulian tree (Magnolia grandis) is listed as critically endangered due to habitat loss for agricultural expansion and logging.

Moving Forward

Protecting iconic endangered species is still important for promoting policies and measures that can benefit entire ecosystems and many other endangered species. Nevertheless, species conservation efforts must expand to include many more species that are lesser known and serve important ecosystem services. Such efforts should also create incentives for local communities to conserve them, including through sustainable use when that is recognized as the only or the most effective measure. Finally, greater financial resources have to be allocated. Many hope the post-2020 global biodiversity framework will help guide the most pressing actions to keep entire species from being erased from our shared world.

Works Consulted

Betts, J., Young, R. P., Hilton-Taylor, C., Hoffmann, M., Rodríguez, J. P., Stuart, S. N., & Milner-Gulland, E. J. (2020). A framework for evaluating the impact of the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Conservation Biology: The Journal of the Society for Conservation Biology, 34(3), 632–643. doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13454

Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. (n.d.). What is CITES? cites.org/eng/disc/what.php

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. (n.d.). CMS. cms.int/en/legalinstrument/cms

Global Environment Facility. (2010). Global Environment Facility to support $50 million in grants to save the tiger. thegef.org/newsroom/news/global-environmentfacility-support-50-million-grants-save-tiger

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. (2019). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673

Jacobson, A.P., Gerngross, P., Lemeris, Jr., J.R., Schoonover, R.F., Anco, C., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., Durant, S.M., Farhadinia, M.S., Henschel, P., Kamler, J.F., Laguardia, A., Rostro-García, S., Stein, A.B., & Dollar, L. (2016). Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range. PeerJ 4:e1974. doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1974

Lewis, M., & Trouwborst, A. (2019). Large carnivores and the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)—definitions, sustainable use, added value, and other emerging issues. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7. frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fevo.2019.00491

McCarthy, T., Mallon, D., Jackson, R., Zahler, P., & McCarthy, K. (2017). Panthera uncia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017. Panthera uncia (Snow Leopard) (iucnredlist.org)

Rodrigues, A.S.L., Pilgrim, J.D., Lamoreux, J.F., Hoffmann, M., & Brooks, T.M. (2006). The value of the IUCN Red List for conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21(2), 71-76. doi.org/10.1016/j. tree.2005.10.010

Rosen, T., & Roettger, C. (2014). Central Asian Mammals Initiative: Saving the last migrations. CMS. cms.int/sites/default/files/publication/Central_Asian_Mammals_Initiative.pdf

Slappendel, C. (2021). What’s stopping some countries from keeping up with tiger conservation promises? Commentary. Mongabay news.mongabay.com/2021/11/whats-stopping-some-countries-from-keeping-up-with-tiger-conservationpromises-commentary/

UNDP. (2016). Silent Roar - UNDP and GEF in the snow leopard landscape. undp.org/publications/silent-roar-undpand-gef-snow-leopard-landscape

Zahler, P., & Rosen, T. (2013). Endangered mammals. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. Elsevier.

Zakharenka, A., Sharma, K., Kochorov, C., Rutherford, B., Varma, K., Seth, A., Kushlin, A., Lumpkin, S., Seidensticker, J., Laporte, B., Tichomirow, B., Jackson, R. M., Mishra, C., Abdiev, B., Modaqiq, A. W., Wangchuk, S., Zhongtian, Z., Khanduri, S. K., Duisekeyev, B., … Yunusov, N. (2016). The Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program. Snow Leopards, 559–573. doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-802213-9.00045-6

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Our ‘frog saunas’ could help save endangered species from the devastating chytrid fungus

Schmidt Science Fellow in Conservation Biology, Macquarie University

Disclosure statement

Anthony Waddle received research funding from the Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment, the Frog and Tadpole Study Group of New South Wales, the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, the Australian Research Council, Macquarie University, the University of Melbourne, and CSIRO. Anthony was supported by scholarships from the University of Melbourne and the American Australian Assocation. He is currently supported by a fellowship from the Schmidt Science Fellows, in partnership with the Rhodes Trust.

Macquarie University provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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All over the world, frogs are being wiped out by the chytrid fungus. At least 500 species have declined, including as many as 90 species now presumed extinct .

This catastrophic and ongoing biodiversity loss surpasses the devastation wrought by other notorious invasive species such as cats, rats and even cane toads. Short of removing species from the wild and treating them in captivity, few strategies exist to deal with the chytrid threat.

Our new research , published today in the journal Nature, offers a promising option.

Outbreaks of chytrid (pronounced “KY-trid”) are more common in cold winter months – just like seasonal human flu. We found a way to combat these winter outbreaks using heat. Our purpose-built “frog saunas” allow affected amphibians to warm up and bake off their infections. They are so simple you can build a frog sauna using supplies from the hardware store.

Why should we care about frogs?

If frogs’ good looks are not enough for you to care about their welfare, perhaps learning how they contribute to the environment or human health will pique your interest.

Frogs eat insects that carry and spread human diseases. Their skin is also a rich source of new medicines that could help us combat antibiotic-resistant “superbugs ” or curb the startling increase in opioid addiction .

The frogs themselves are food for many predators , including humans .

Often starting life as a tadpole eating algae, before morphing into a carnivorous adult, frogs carry energy from aquatic ecosystems onto land – where it can be transferred throughout the food web. So losing a single frog species can have serious flow-on effects.

The origin and spread of chytrid

It’s likely the chytrid fungus originated in Asia , where the pathogen seems to coexist with native amphibians. But chytrid is deadly elsewhere, possibly because other frogs have no natural defences.

Chytrid harms frogs by disrupting the integrity of their skin, depleting electrolytes needed for heart function. Infected frogs can die of cardiac arrest .

Chytrid has spread worldwide through the trade of amphibians, becoming a seemingly permanent part of ecosystems. As eradicating chytrid from the wild is not possible, we need a way to help frogs battle infection.

Introducing frog saunas

Research has shown chytrid is worse in winter . My colleagues and I wondered whether, if frogs had access to warmth during winter, could they fight off infection?

The fungus can’t tolerate high temperatures, so if we gave frogs a place to stay warm – even for a few hours a day – perhaps they could survive and recover.

We tested this idea, both in the laboratory and in outdoor experiments.

First we established that endangered green and golden bell frogs will select temperatures that reduce or eliminate chytrid infections, when given the opportunity.

Then we conducted experiments in the lab, with 66 infected frogs. The group given the option of choosing the temperature they liked best rapidly cleared their infection. The group placed in a set, warm temperature also cleared their infection, but it took longer. The low-temperature control group remained infected.

Next, we wanted to see what would happen if frogs that cured infections with heat would still get sick. Or were they immune? The group of 23 heat-cured frogs were 22 times more likely to survive the second infection than the 23 frogs that were heat-treated but not previously infected. So frogs cured with heat acquire resistance to future infections.

Finally, we wanted to see if this could work in a natural setting. We ran outdoor experiments with 239 frogs. Half were infected with chytrid one week before the experiment began. Then they were placed in enclosures with artificial structures that heat up in the sun, called “frog saunas”. But the frogs could choose from shaded and unshaded areas, with or without saunas.

We found frogs flocked to the sunny saunas, heated up their little bodies, and quickly fought off infection. Think of frog saunas as little factories that pump out healthy, chytrid-resistant frogs.

The frog saunas could be used on a wider scale. We believe they would be best suited to supporting populations of Australian green and golden bell frogs, but they could be useful for other species too.

The saunas are made of inexpensive materials that can be found at your local hardware store, making them accessible to the general public and wildlife managers alike.

We are already building shelters at Sydney Olympic Park, working with Macquarie University and the Sydney Olympic Park Authority. The park is home to one of the largest remaining populations of green and golden bell frogs.

Want to get involved?

You can become a citizen scientist and help save frogs from extinction. Start by downloading the FrogID app to learn how frogs are faring. Record frog calls with the app for scientists to identify them. This helps provide valuable data for frog conservation.

Build a frog sauna for your backyard, to help keep them healthy through winter.

It’s essentially a brick-filled greenhouse, warmed by sunlight. All you need is some common clay ten-hole masonry bricks, black paint and cable ties – and a little greenhouse to put the sauna inside.

Changing the fate of frogs

Since the discovery of chytrid more than 25 years ago, the pathogen has been a seemingly insurmountable challenge to endangered frog conservation. Now, we have developed a promising, inexpensive and widely applicable strategy to combat chytrid.

Amphibians are such a diverse group that no single approach will be suitable for all species. So this is no silver bullet. But a useful tool for even one threatened or endangered species is cause for optimism.

The concept could also be applied to other wildlife diseases, where differences between the physiology of the host and pathogen can be exploited.

• Conservation
• Fungal infection
• Environment
• Endangered species
• Chytrid fungus
• Fungal disease
• New research, Australia New Zealand

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Notes and News: Endangered Species

• Volume 40 – Issue 4 (Dec 1975)
• Edward S. Ayensu
• December - 1975