leadership theories case study

• Request new password
• Create a new account

Leadership: Theory and Practice

Student resources, welcome to the companion website.

Now with a new chapter on Inclusive Leadership, adopted in thousands of courses in 89 countries and translated into 15 different languages, this market-leading text successfully combines an academically robust account of the major theories and models of leadership with an accessible style and focus on how leadership theory can inform leadership practice. Peter G. Northouse uses a consistent structure for each chapter, allowing readers to easily compare and contrast different theories. Case studies and questionnaires provide students with practical examples and opportunities to deepen their understanding of their own leadership style.

Key Features:

• A consistent chapter structure outlines each approach, how it works, and the major studies behind it, followed by an analysis of the strengths and criticisms for each approach.
• Three case studies in each chapter help students to apply leadership theories in real-world scenarios.
• Questionnaires within each chapter provides self-assessment and reflection opportunities for each theory presented.

New to This Edition:

• New Chapter on Inclusive Leadership authored by Donna Chrobot-Mason (University of Cincinnati) and Quinetta Roberson (Michigan State University) provides a model of inclusive leadership that examines antecedent conditions, leader behaviors, and positive organizational outcomes associated with inclusive leadership.
• 18 new real-world case studies profile leaders around the globe including cases on New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, a mental health program in Zimbabwe, and how a university in the US responds to crisis.
• New discussion of leadership and morality explores leadership as a neutral process and leadership as a moral process.

This site features an array of free resources you can access anytime, anywhere.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge Peter G. Northouse for writing an excellent text. Special thanks are also due to Eric Buschlen of Central Michigan University for developing the resources on this site.

Authors: Peter G. Northouse Pub Date: February 2021

Buy the book

Order Review Copy

• Request new password
• Create a new account

Leadership: Theory and Practice

Student resources, welcome to the companion website.

Welcome to the companion website for Leadership, Sixth Edition,  by Peter G. Northouse . The resources on the site have been specifically designed to support your study.

On this website you will find:

• SAGE Journal Articles
• Reference Articles
• Video and Multimedia

Instructors can log in to access:

• Course Cartidges
• Questionnaires
• Study Questions
• Course Syllabi
• PowerPoint Slides
• Assignments and Exercises
• Web Exercises
• Class Activities
• Course Project
• This I Believe

About the book: 

Adopted at more than 1,000 colleges and universities worldwide, the market-leading text owes its success to the unique way in which it combines an academically robust account of the major theories and models of leadership with an accessible style and practical exercises that help students apply what they learn. Each chapter of Peter Northouse's Leadership: Theory and Practice follows a consistent format, allowing students to contrast the various theories, and three case studies in each chapter provide practical examples of each theory or trait discussed. The Sixth Edition adds an important new chapter on Servant Leadership.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge Peter G. Northouse for writing an excellent text and for his involvement in reviewing the assets on this site. Special thanks to the following people, who updated and created the resources on this site. Isolde Anderson, Hope College; Andrea Markowitz, Write for Your Business; Lizz Mathews, Western Michigan University; Mary Mathews, Western Michigan University; Rebecca G. McBride, Old Dominion University; Trey Patrick Mitchell, Western Michigan University; Lisa J. Northouse, Western Michigan University, and Anita Pankake, University of Texas–Pan American.

Disclaimer: This website may contain links to both internal and external websites. All links included were active at the time the website was launched. SAGE does not operate these external websites and does not necessarily endorse the views expressed within them. SAGE cannot take responsibility for the changing content or nature of linked sites, as these sites are outside of our control and subject to change without our knowledge. If you do find an inactive link to an external website, please try to locate that website by using a search engine. SAGE will endeavour to update inactive or broken links when possible.

Leadership Theories and Case Studies: An Epidemiological Perspective

• Description

Effective leadership does not occur by chance. Leaders must be trained and groomed for the daunting responsibility of leading organizations. Research shows that half of the people currently in leadership positions will fail. Why they fail and what can be done to prevent failure are the main subjects of this book. It shows that effective leadership is possible and illustrates why and how, based on research and case studies from an epidemiological perspective. The epidemiological word “determinant” is used frequently, and is a word that no other book on leadership uses. Epidemiologists work from two basic principles: namely, that all diseases have determinants and that diseases do not occur randomly. In other words, there are always causes for diseases and patterns that describe how diseases spread. Effective and ineffective leadership always have determinants that are not randomly distributed; the impacts are uniformly and deeply spread throughout an organization. Like the epidemiologists, this book not only identifies leadership determinants, but also provides research-based “antidotes” at the end of each chapter, along with a summary of the most salient points in the chapter. This book offers examples of leadership and governance from the non-profit sector, businesses, public and private education, higher education, and other organizations, highlighting over 50 case studies to illustrate concepts about leadership.

Dr Garry Wade McGiboney has several years of experience in public education, having served in school level, district level, and state level positions. He has a PhD in School Psychology and Administration from Georgia State University, and is a certified psychologist and mediator. He is a member of several professional organizations, and was recently appointed by the Governor of Georgia to serve on the Joint Study Committee on Mental Health Access. He also serves by appointment on the Georgia Supreme Court’s Justice for Children Committee. Dr McGiboney has over 30 publications on several youth-related issues to his credit, and he is the author of seven books, including The Private Side of Public Education, Student Relations and Discipline, Lessons for Leaders and Governing Boards, and The Psychology of School Climate. He has been interviewed by CNN, NBC, CBS, ABC and NPR, and has been quoted in Time, the Wall Street Journal and many other international publications, including Le Devoir, Listin Diario, Japan Press, and Mato Grosso. Dr McGiboney is the recipient of several awards, including NAACP Educator of the Year; the National Association of School Psychologists National Friend of Children Award; School Counselors Advocate of the Year Award; Association of School Nurses Hero Award; and Mental Health America Board Member of the Year Award, among others. Recently, he was inducted into the Georgia Board of Regents Alumni Hall of Fame for his career-long efforts on behalf of children.

There are currently no reviews for this title. Please do revisit this page again to see if some have been added.

Buy This Book

ISBN: 1-5275-0937-0

ISBN13: 978-1-5275-0937-5

Release Date: 29th May 2018

Price: £68.99

New and Forthcoming

• Sales Agents
• Unsubscribe

Cambridge Scholars Publishing | Registration Number: 04333775

Please note that Cambridge Scholars Publishing Limited is not affiliated to or associated with Cambridge University Press or the University of Cambridge

Copyright © 2024 Cambridge Scholars Publishing. All rights reserved.

Designed and Built by Prime Creative

Please fill in the short form below for any enquiries.

Sign up for our newsletter

Please enter your email address below;

Analysis of Leadership Style in Organizations: A Case Study of the Movie Disclosure

5 Pages Posted: 3 Jun 2021

Victor Birikorang Danquah

Business School Netherlands; Independent; Society of Petroleum Engineers

Date Written: June 2, 2021

From the standpoint of an organization, a growing amount of research demonstrates that leadership has an impact on performance. (Waldman et al., 2004; Agle et al., 2006). According to a survey, only a small percentage of people in leadership roles genuinely lead, with the great majority reacting, either to please shareholders or to protect their reputation (Kakabadse and Kakabadse 2007). In 1994, right before Christmas, the film 'Disclosure' was released. The CEO, Bob Garvin, and his subordinates' leadership styles and behaviors are examined in this research. This research looks at power in the workplace in particular and suggests transformational leadership. "A process by which a person inspires a group of persons to attain a common goal" is how leadership is defined (Northhouse, 2019 p. 43). This concept of leadership, according to Northouse (2019), involves three things: procedures, influences, and groups. Leadership theory, like any other theory, must explain three key questions: what, why, and how (Whetten, 2002). Thus, in leadership theory, the "what" reflects the goal that the leader seeks to achieve, "how" describes how the leader achieves the goal, and "why" explains why this particular approach for achieving the objective was chosen. Power is required to be able to influence followers (French and Raven, 1959). There are six power bases.: Informational, Reward, Coercion, Legitimate, Expertise, and Referent (Raven, 2008). One's leadership style is determined by the types of power he or she wields. Coercive leaders, authoritative leaders, affiliative leaders, democratic leaders, pacesetting leaders, and coaching leaders are among the six types of leaders identified (Goleman, 2000). Coercive leadership, according to Goleman, should only be employed with extreme caution and in the few cases where it is absolutely essential. For example, when a turnaround is imminent or when a hostile takeover is imminent. To be effective, he suggests that leaders master at least four types, including authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching, and be able to move between them quickly. According to Raven (2008), an effective leader must utilize informational power to properly explain concerns to subordinates with persuasive arguments for the subordinates to grasp and accept the reasons. The theory of the great man is linked to coercive leadership styles (Matchan 2020). According to the belief, great men leaders place a greater emphasis on the I rather than the we. The “great man” idea (Carlyle, 2007; James, 1880) is concerned with the personality attributes that leaders are born with (Kakabadse and Kakabadse, 1999). Associated with great man theory are transactional leadership. Transactional leaders are said to be incapable of building trusting, mutually beneficial leader-member relationships (Notgrass, 2014). Employees favor leaders that can inspire a group vision, stimulate creativity, reward achievement, develop trust, and promote a sense of belonging (Notgrass, 2014). .

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Victor Birikorang Danquah (Contact Author)

Business school netherlands ( email ).

Herenstraat 25 416 BK Buren Netherlands

HOME PAGE: http://www.bsn.eu

Independent ( email )

Society of petroleum engineers ( email ).

PO Box 833836 Richardson Texas 75083-3836 Richardson, TX United States

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on SSRN?

Paper statistics, related ejournals, models of leadership ejournal.

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

Leadership & Organizational Behavior eJournal

Critical Evaluation of the Application of Leadership Theories to a Leader in an Organizational Context and Management Theories to a Contemporary Organization (A case study based on Virgin Group Limited and the Co-Founder, Sir Richard Branson)

• December 2018
• Thesis for: Master of Business Administration
• Advisor: Caroline Ntara

• Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

Abstract and Figures

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• Douglas Griffin

• G. M. Stalker
• D.C. Atwater
• Lawrence F. Lamb
• Kathy Brittain McKee
• Bernard M. Bass

• Susan Herman
• T. R. Mitchell

• Gerald R. Oncken
• Fred E. Fiedler
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• Topic Collection
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 5, Issue 1
• Evolution of leadership theory
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1681-4706 Sihame Benmira 1 ,
• Moyosolu Agboola 2
• 1 Mayo Clinic Healthcare , London , UK
• 2 Virgin Care , Reading , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Sihame Benmira, Mayo Clinic Healthcare, London W1B 1PT, UK; sihame.benmira{at}doctors.org.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/leader-2020-000296

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

• medical leadership
• leadership assessment
• clinical leadership

Introduction

Leadership is one of the most complex and multidimensional phenomena. It has been studied extensively over the years and has taken on greater importance than ever before in today’s fast-paced and increasingly globalised world. Nonetheless, leadership continues to generate captivating and confusing debate due to the complexity of the subject. Bennis notes that ‘leadership is the most studied and least understood topic of any in the social sciences’ and ‘never have so many laboured so long to say so little’. 1

Effective leadership is recognised as key to the success of any organisation. In fact, there has been a shift towards acknowledging the importance of human capital and organisational management. 5 6 But what is the difference between leadership and management? Leaders are generally viewed as visionaries and strategist whereas managers monitor and control performance, maintaining order and stability in an organisation. 7 8 Some researchers argue that leaders and managers have distinct roles and responsibilities while others assert that leadership and management are complementary and it would be difficult to separate them in practice. 7

The present paper traces the historical evolution of the main leadership theories and reviews the progress that has been made over the years. It explores four main eras in leadership theory: trait, behavioural, situational and new leadership.

Trait era: Great Man theory (1840s) and trait theories (1930s–1940s)

In the 19th century, research on leadership was focused on the innate characteristics of a leader 9 10 and on identifying the personality traits and other qualities of effective leaders. 11

The core belief of the Great Man theory is that leaders are born, not made or trained. In other words only a few, very rare, individuals possess the unique characteristics to be effective leaders and attain greatness by divine design. Examples were often drawn from popular historical figures such as Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln and Napoleon Bonaparte. It was believed that these individuals were natural born leaders with innate characteristics of leadership, which enabled them to lead individuals while they shape the pages of history.

The Great Man theory then evolved into the trait theories. Trait theories argue that leaders can be born or made. 7 In other words, that the traits of successful leaders can be either inherited or acquired through training and practice. The aim was to identify the right combination of characteristics that make an effective leader and focus was on studying the mental, social and physical traits of leaders. However, a consistent set of traits was not produced and by 1950, it appeared that there was little advantage in continuing with this approach and hence it was abandoned. Today, psychometric tools are an example of trait theory principles in action and are often used in staff recruitment. These tools highlight key personality traits and are used for personal performance and team development.

Behavioural era: behavioural theory (1940s–1950s)

Behavioural theory evolved from trait theories and asserts that leaders are largely made, rather than born and that particular behaviours can be learnt to ensure effective leadership. 11 12 It puts emphasis on the actual behaviour of the leader and not on their traits or characteristics, but it largely ignores the situation and environment of the leader.

Research in this area resulted in different patterns of behaviour being grouped together and labelled as styles. 11 This became a prevalent approach within management training—perhaps the best known being Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid. 13 Today, this theory is exemplified in the numerous leadership-training programmes, which involve the development of leadership skills and behaviours, thus supporting the belief that leadership is largely learnt.

Situational era: contingent and situational theories (1960s)

It was later recognised that the environment plays a significant role in the leader-follower dynamic and this belief dominated the situational era. 14 As the name suggests, the situational era is focused on leadership in particular situations, rather than on the traits or behaviours of leaders. This implies that leaders must be able to assess the context in which they operate and then decide what style will ‘fit’ the situation best. Because the best style is dependent on the situation, this approach is known as the contingency theory of leadership.

Fred Fiedler developed one of the first contingency theories of leadership. 15 His theory focuses on the importance of context in effective leadership and supports the belief that there is no one best set of leadership traits or behaviours. However, Fiedler asserst that because a leader’s style is fixed, they should be put into situations that best match their style. In other words, effectiveness as a leader is determined by how well their leadership style matches a particular context.

New leadership era: transactional, transformational theories (1990s) and others (2000s)

For the first time, it was recognised that focusing on one aspect or dimension of leadership cannot address all the complexity of the phenomenon. 16 In a world that has become more complex and challenging, a need emerged for leadership theories that support circumstances of rapid change, disruptive technological innovation and increasing globalisation. This led to the new leadership era, moving away from the above-mentioned traditional theories of leadership, which define leadership as a unidirectional, top-down influencing process, drawing a distinct line between leaders and followers. Instead, the focus became on the complex interactions among the leader, the followers, the situation and the system as a whole, with particular attention dedicated to the latent leadership capacities of followers.

Transactional and transformational theories

The above-mentioned context encouraged the popularity and adoption of two leadership theories: transformational and transactional theories, 17 and also gave rise to approaches such as the Lean strategy 18 and agile methodology 19 to help deal with the fast pace of change and increasing complexity of the challenges faced. Transformational leadership is a theory in which leaders encourage, inspire and motivate followers. 20 This theory is used when an organisation needs to be revitalised, is undergoing significant change or requires a new direction. It is especially vital to today’s fast-paced technological industry where innovation and agility can make or break an organisation. Examples of transformational leaders include the likes of Jeff Bezos, Steve Jobs and Bill Gates.

Transactional leadership, on the other hand, relies on authority to motivate employees. 20 The leader exchanges reward for follower effort and punishes any follower who fails to meet their goals. In this context, the follower’s perception concerning fairness and equity of the exchange with the leader is vital. 21 Transactional leadership works best in mature organisations that already have clearly defined structure and goals, to keep them on track, and reinforce the status quo. Examples of transactional leaders include managers, who tend to focus on supervision, processes and follower performance.

The continued shift in leadership concepts led to the development of shared, collective and collaborative leadership practices. 22 23 According to these, success in an organisation is more dependent on coordinative leadership practices distributed throughout the organisation rather than the actions of a few individuals at the top. Servant leadership became popular once again, emphasising the importance of followers. Servant leaders seek to support their team members and are most concerned with serving people first. 24 More recently, inclusive leadership also emerged, focusing on a person-centred approach. 25 It is based on the dynamic processes that occur between leaders and followers and focuses on empowering followers to becoming leaders. Finally, contemporary leadership theory also includes complexity leadership, which emerged as a means to deal with the complexity of our modern world. This theory takes a whole-system view, considering contextual interactions that occur across an entire social system. 26

Leadership theory is a dynamic phenomenon and continues to change over time. It has been studied extensively over the years and several theories have emerged ( table 1 ). Traditional leadership theories include the Great Man theory, which maintains that leaders are born to lead thus possessing certain inherent characteristics that destines them to lead. Trait theory evolved from the Great Man theory and specifies that leaders are can be born or made and that the combination of certain characteristics is needed to be an effective leader. Behavioural theory then followed, asserting that leaders are largely made with a focus on the actions of the leader as opposed to their personality traits. There was then recognition that certain environmental factors are important and contingency and situational theories were added to the mix. The modern era followed and involved a shift from focusing on the leaders and their attributes to considering the complex and continuous interactions and interrelationships among the leader, the followers and the situation. The resulting theories include shared, collective and collaborative leadership as well as inclusive leadership. Finally, complexity leadership also emerged, focusing on the whole system of an organisation.

• View inline

Summary of the main leadership theories

Examining the historical development of leadership theories provides some necessary perspective as well as context within which to appreciate the complexity of the subject. Each theory has its merits and drawbacks and seems to provide part of the answer to the leadership puzzle. In today’s complex, dynamic and globalised world, organisations are consistently dealing with change and uncertainty and no one theory has been able to address all the concerns regarding leadership. Many consider the traditional hierarchical views of leadership as less and less relevant given the complexity of our modern world. This led to a shift in focus from the characteristics and behaviours of leaders to a more systemic perspective, focusing on leadership as a collective social process resulting from the interactions of multiple factors. New leadership theories were consequently formulated in an attempt to deal with the new reality of organisations and business, resulting in newer and more relevant definitions of leader, follower and situation.

Express checkout

The present paper explores the historical evolution of leadership theory, which includes four main eras: trait, behavioural, situational and new leadership. The focus was initially on natural born leaders and identifying the traits of the effective leader. Behavioural leadership then followed and focused on the actions of a leader. The situational and contingent theories in turn assert that the best leadership style is the one that best fits a given context. These traditional leadership theories offered part of the answer to the leadership puzzle but none had all the answer. These were then followed by the new leadership theories, which are inclusive of additional factors, generally adopt a more systemic approach to leadership and take into account the multifaceted and complex nature of our modern world and the importance of followership in effective leadership.

In practice

Hospital trusts in the UK are large, complex, and mature organisations within the National Health Service (NHS) with established structures and processes. Traditional leadership theory tells us that transactional leadership is ideal in this situation for keeping an established organisation on track, maintaining the status quo and ensuring the execution of plans. Transactional leadership is also known to be effective in guiding efficiency decisions, which are aimed at cutting costs and improving productivity. However, because the NHS is not only a mature organisation but also undergoing tremendous change, leaders may switch styles and adopt a transformational leadership approach to engage followers in implementing change and encouraging innovation.

Healthcare organisations may also benefit from the application of other more contemporary leadership theories such as collaborative, inclusive and shared leadership, which blur the distinction between leader and follower and adopt a person-centred approach that focuses on the empowerment and development of followers. Compassionate leadership is also relevant in the context of patient care. And complexity leadership theory can also help the NHS understand how to thrive in today’s uncertain and turbulent times using a process-orientated, contextual and interactive approach to infiltrate leadership at all levels. The challenge is for healthcare professionals to be able to recognise which leadership theory is most relevant to their clinical practice and know how to effectively apply these theories in the workplace.

• Stogdill RM
• Froiland JM
• Bhattacharyya SS
• Buchanan DA ,
• Huczynski A
• Denison DR ,
• Hooijberg R ,
• Fiedler F ,
• Van Seters DA ,
• Codington-Lacerte C
• Hollander EP ,
• Offermann LR
• Kukenberger MR ,
• D'Innocenzo L
• Lee-Davies L
• Thompson H ,
• Rosenhead J ,
• Franco LA ,
• Grint K , et al

Contributors SB conceived the idea for the article. SB and MA contributed to the design and wrote the article. SB submitted the article. Both SB and MA contributed to revising the article following reviewer feedback.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

• Politics & Social Sciences
• Politics & Government

Sorry, there was a problem.

Download the free Kindle app and start reading Kindle books instantly on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required .

Read instantly on your browser with Kindle for Web.

Using your mobile phone camera - scan the code below and download the Kindle app.

Image Unavailable

• To view this video download Flash Player

Follow the author

Leadership: Theory and Practice Ninth Edition

• ISBN-10 1544397569
• ISBN-13 978-1544397566
• Edition Ninth
• Publication date February 8, 2021
• Language English
• Dimensions 6 x 1.36 x 9 inches
• Print length 600 pages
• See all details

Products related to this item .sp_detail_sponsored_label { color: #555555; font-size: 11px; } .sp_detail_info_icon { width: 11px; vertical-align: text-bottom; fill: #969696; } .sp_info_link { text-decoration:none !important; } #sp_detail_hide_feedback_string { display: none; } .sp_detail_sponsored_label:hover { color: #111111; } .sp_detail_sponsored_label:hover .sp_detail_info_icon { fill: #555555; } Sponsored (function(f) {var _np=(window.P._namespace("FirebirdSpRendering"));if(_np.guardFatal){_np.guardFatal(f)(_np);}else{f(_np);}}(function(P) { P.when("A", "a-carousel-framework", "a-modal").execute(function(A, CF, AM) { var DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX = 'adFeedback:desktop:multiAsinAF:sp_detail'; A.declarative('sp_detail_feedback-action', 'click', function(event) { var MODAL_NAME_PREFIX = 'multi_af_modal_'; var MODAL_CLASS_PREFIX = 'multi-af-modal-'; var BASE_16 = 16; var UID_START_INDEX = 2; var uniqueIdentifier = Math.random().toString(BASE_16).substr(UID_START_INDEX); var modalName = MODAL_NAME_PREFIX + "sp_detail" + uniqueIdentifier; var modalClass = MODAL_CLASS_PREFIX + "sp_detail" + uniqueIdentifier; initModal(modalName, modalClass); removeModalOnClose(modalName); }); function initModal (modalName, modalClass) { var trigger = A.$(' '); var initialContent = ' ' + ' ' + ' '; var HEADER_STRING = "Leave feedback"; if (false) { HEADER_STRING = "Ad information and options"; } var modalInstance = AM.create(trigger, { 'content': initialContent, 'header': HEADER_STRING, 'name': modalName }); modalInstance.show(); var serializedPayload = generatePayload(modalName); A.$.ajax({ url: "/af/multi-creative/feedback-form", type: 'POST', data: serializedPayload, headers: { 'Content-Type': 'application/json', 'Accept': 'application/json'}, success: function(response) { if (!response) { return; } modalInstance.update(response); var successMetric = DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX + ":formDisplayed"; if (window.ue && window.ue.count) { window.ue.count(successMetric, (window.ue.count(successMetric) || 0) + 1); } }, error: function(err) { var errorText = 'Feedback Form get failed with error: ' + err; var errorMetric = DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX + ':error'; P.log(errorText, 'FATAL', DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX); if (window.ue && window.ue.count) { window.ue.count(errorMetric, (window.ue.count(errorMetric) || 0) + 1); } modalInstance.update(' ' + "Error loading ad feedback form." + ' '); } }); return modalInstance; } function removeModalOnClose (modalName) { A.on('a:popover:afterHide:' + modalName, function removeModal () { AM.remove(modalName); }); } function generatePayload(modalName) { var carousel = CF.getCarousel(document.getElementById("sp_detail")); var EMPTY_CARD_CLASS = "a-carousel-card-empty"; if (!carousel) { return; } var adPlacementMetaData = carousel.dom.$carousel.context.getAttribute("data-ad-placement-metadata"); var adDetailsList = []; if (adPlacementMetaData == "") { return; } carousel.dom.$carousel.children("li").not("." + EMPTY_CARD_CLASS).each(function (idx, item) { var divs = item.getElementsByTagName("div"); var adFeedbackDetails; for (var i = 0; i

Editorial Reviews

About the author.

Peter G. Northouse is a professor emeritus of communication in the School of Communication at Western Michigan University. For more than 25 years he taught leadership and interpersonal and organizational communication at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. In addition to publications in professional journals he is the author of Leadership: Theory and Practice (9th ed.) and Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice (6th ed.) and co-author of Health Communication: Strategies for Health Professionals (3rd ed.). His scholarly and curricular interests include models of leadership, leadership assessment, ethical leadership, and leadership and group dynamics. He has worked as a consultant in a variety of areas, including leadership development, leadership education, conflict management, and health communication. He holds a doctorate in speech communication from the University of Denver and master’s and bachelor’s degrees in communication education from Michigan State University.

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ SAGE Publications, Inc; Ninth edition (February 8, 2021)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 600 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1544397569
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1544397566
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.7 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6 x 1.36 x 9 inches
• #7 in Education Administration (Books)
• #13 in Public Affairs & Administration (Books)
• #243 in Leadership & Motivation

Videos for this product

Click to play video

Honest Review of Leadership Theory & Practice Book

✅ Raikens Reviews ✅

What is your Leadership style? Learn how to identify yours.

About the author

Peter g. northouse.

Discover more of the author’s books, see similar authors, read author blogs and more

Products related to this item .sp_detail2_sponsored_label { color: #555555; font-size: 11px; } .sp_detail2_info_icon { width: 11px; vertical-align: text-bottom; fill: #969696; } .sp_info_link { text-decoration:none !important; } #sp_detail2_hide_feedback_string { display: none; } .sp_detail2_sponsored_label:hover { color: #111111; } .sp_detail2_sponsored_label:hover .sp_detail2_info_icon { fill: #555555; } Sponsored (function(f) {var _np=(window.P._namespace("FirebirdSpRendering"));if(_np.guardFatal){_np.guardFatal(f)(_np);}else{f(_np);}}(function(P) { P.when("A", "a-carousel-framework", "a-modal").execute(function(A, CF, AM) { var DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX = 'adFeedback:desktop:multiAsinAF:sp_detail2'; A.declarative('sp_detail2_feedback-action', 'click', function(event) { var MODAL_NAME_PREFIX = 'multi_af_modal_'; var MODAL_CLASS_PREFIX = 'multi-af-modal-'; var BASE_16 = 16; var UID_START_INDEX = 2; var uniqueIdentifier = Math.random().toString(BASE_16).substr(UID_START_INDEX); var modalName = MODAL_NAME_PREFIX + "sp_detail2" + uniqueIdentifier; var modalClass = MODAL_CLASS_PREFIX + "sp_detail2" + uniqueIdentifier; initModal(modalName, modalClass); removeModalOnClose(modalName); }); function initModal (modalName, modalClass) { var trigger = A.$(' '); var initialContent = ' ' + ' ' + ' '; var HEADER_STRING = "Leave feedback"; if (false) { HEADER_STRING = "Ad information and options"; } var modalInstance = AM.create(trigger, { 'content': initialContent, 'header': HEADER_STRING, 'name': modalName }); modalInstance.show(); var serializedPayload = generatePayload(modalName); A.$.ajax({ url: "/af/multi-creative/feedback-form", type: 'POST', data: serializedPayload, headers: { 'Content-Type': 'application/json', 'Accept': 'application/json'}, success: function(response) { if (!response) { return; } modalInstance.update(response); var successMetric = DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX + ":formDisplayed"; if (window.ue && window.ue.count) { window.ue.count(successMetric, (window.ue.count(successMetric) || 0) + 1); } }, error: function(err) { var errorText = 'Feedback Form get failed with error: ' + err; var errorMetric = DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX + ':error'; P.log(errorText, 'FATAL', DESKTOP_METRIC_PREFIX); if (window.ue && window.ue.count) { window.ue.count(errorMetric, (window.ue.count(errorMetric) || 0) + 1); } modalInstance.update(' ' + "Error loading ad feedback form." + ' '); } }); return modalInstance; } function removeModalOnClose (modalName) { A.on('a:popover:afterHide:' + modalName, function removeModal () { AM.remove(modalName); }); } function generatePayload(modalName) { var carousel = CF.getCarousel(document.getElementById("sp_detail2")); var EMPTY_CARD_CLASS = "a-carousel-card-empty"; if (!carousel) { return; } var adPlacementMetaData = carousel.dom.$carousel.context.getAttribute("data-ad-placement-metadata"); var adDetailsList = []; if (adPlacementMetaData == "") { return; } carousel.dom.$carousel.children("li").not("." + EMPTY_CARD_CLASS).each(function (idx, item) { var divs = item.getElementsByTagName("div"); var adFeedbackDetails; for (var i = 0; i

Customer reviews

Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them.

To calculate the overall star rating and percentage breakdown by star, we don’t use a simple average. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyzed reviews to verify trustworthiness.

Customers say

Customers find the content great, relevant, and research-backed. They also describe the case studies as relevant and easy to follow and comprehend. Opinions are mixed on readability, with some finding it well organized and easy, while others find it difficult to comprehend the writing and points.

AI-generated from the text of customer reviews

Customers find the book's content great, helpful, and perfect for leadership class. They also appreciate the assessments and opportunity to apply and understand through exercises. Readers describe the book as cutting-edge and seminal. They mention that it provides a good overview of various leadership theories and that the text was in perfect shape.

"Not an easy read but really good information ." Read more

"This is a comprehensive, research-backed look at leadership theories and frameworks...." Read more

" Great info . Maybe slightly larger print." Read more

"...Each chapter/theory also provides the reader with an assessment that can be taken to show them where they fall on the scale of each theory...." Read more

Customers are mixed about the readability. Some mention that it's well organized, not difficult to read, and approachable. However, others say that it makes it difficult to comprehend the actual writing and points.

"...It is definitely a textbook, but is very approachable and can be practically applied immediately." Read more

" Not an easy read but really good information." Read more

" Easy to read and understand , helpful information, good resources" Read more

"...is fine, but I don’t think a single person edited it for basic typographical errors . It’s distracting and at times, changes the content...." Read more

Reviews with images

• Sort reviews by Top reviews Most recent Top reviews

Top reviews from the United States

There was a problem filtering reviews right now. please try again later..

Top reviews from other countries

• About Amazon
• Investor Relations
• Amazon Devices
• Amazon Science
• Sell products on Amazon
• Sell on Amazon Business
• Sell apps on Amazon
• Become an Affiliate
• Advertise Your Products
• Self-Publish with Us
• Host an Amazon Hub
• › See More Make Money with Us
• Amazon Business Card
• Shop with Points
• Reload Your Balance
• Amazon Currency Converter
• Amazon and COVID-19
• Your Account
• Your Orders
• Shipping Rates & Policies
• Returns & Replacements
• Manage Your Content and Devices

• Conditions of Use
• Privacy Notice
• Consumer Health Data Privacy Disclosure
• Your Ads Privacy Choices

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Exploring purpose-driven leadership: theoretical foundations, mechanisms, and impacts in organizational context.

1. Introduction

2. theoretical perspectives on leadership: an evolutionary analysis, 3. purpose-driven leadership: a new perspective on leadership, 4. methodology.

• Conceptualization of Purpose-Driven Leadership.
• Importance of Purpose-Driven Leadership in contemporary research and practice.
• Theoretical foundations of Purpose-Driven Leadership.
• Mechanisms and impacts of Purpose-Driven Leadership.
• The role of purpose in navigating times of VUCA.
• Measurement approaches for purpose in leadership.

5. Findings

5.1. purpose-driven leadership research landscape, 5.2. purpose, organizational purpose, and purpose-driven leadership.

• Consistency: Purpose does not manifest as a fleeting intention but is grounded in its enduring nature ( Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ; Knippenberg 2020 ). Demonstrating resilience against ephemeral shifts in external conditions or situational variances, purpose consistently maintains its vigor and steadfastness ( Rindova and Martins 2023 ; Trachik et al. 2020 ). It acts as a constant lodestar amid the dynamic terrains of both personal and professional spheres ( Bhattacharya et al. 2023 ; Qin et al. 2022 ; Rindova and Martins 2023 ).
• Generality: In contradistinction to a limited, task-centric objective, purpose is distinguished by its comprehensive scope ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). Instead of being confined to proximate tasks or circumscribed aims, purpose spans a more expansive purview ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). This ubiquity of purpose guarantees its applicability across multifarious contexts ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ).
• Two dimensions: - Internal Dimension: The internal dimension of purpose refers to the individuals’ intrinsic motivations and impulses, which are connected to their sense of purpose ( Crane 2022 ; Knippenberg 2020 ). It serves as a source of meaning, supporting the rationale of every decision, direction, or objective delineated ( Handa 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). This introspective aspect emphasizes the congruence and alignment between an individual and their purpose ( Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). - External Dimension: Beyond its internal impact, the influence of purpose extends to the external environment, through the efforts generated by the individual within their context ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Handa 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). This is underpinned by the individual’s commitment to promoting positive change in a broader environment ( Ocasio et al. 2023 ; Qin et al. 2022 ).
• Daily embodiment and expression: Purpose manifests as a palpable instantiation in quotidian activities since it is part of every decision and action made ( By 2021 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). Such perennial articulation provides consistency and influences daily activities ( Bronk et al. 2023 ; Hurth and Stewart 2022 ; Ocasio et al. 2023 ).

5.2.1. Attributes of Purpose-Driven Leadership

5.2.2. purpose-driven leadership construct conceptualization, 5.3. theoretical foundations of purpose-driven leadership, 5.4. mechanisms and impacts of purpose-driven leadership, 5.4.1. potential antecedents, 5.4.2. potential outcomes, 5.4.3. potential mediators, 5.4.4. potential moderatos, 5.5. purpose-driven leadership as a guiding light, 5.6. measurement approaches for purpose-driven leadership, 6. discussion, 7. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Abbas, Muhammad, and Raza Ali. 2023. Transformational versus transactional leadership styles and project success: A meta-analytic review. European Management Journal 41: 125–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Adobor, Henry, William Phanuel Kofi Darbi, and Obi Berko O. Damoah. 2021. Strategy in the era of “swans”: The role of strategic leadership under uncertainty and unpredictability. Journal of Strategy and Management . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aguileta-Clemente, Carmen López, Julinda Molares-Cardoso, and V. Badenes Plá. 2023. The purpose as a dynamizer of corporate culture and value generator: Analysis of the websites of IBEX-35 Spanish companies Carmen. Revista Internacional de Relaciones Públicas 13: 41–54. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahinful, Gabriel Sam, Jeff Danquah Boakye, and Nana Dwomoh Osei Bempah. 2023. Determinants of SMEs’ financial performance: Evidence from an emerging economy. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship 35: 362–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Almandoz, Juan. 2023. Inside-out and outside-in perspectives on corporate purpose. Strategy Science 8: 139–48. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Amah, Okechukwu Ethelbert, and Kabiru Oyetuunde. 2020. The effect of servant leadership on employee turnover in SMEs in Nigeria: The role of career growth potential and employee voice. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 27: 885–904. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Anshori, Lutfi Isa, Purnamie Titisari, Sri Wahyu Lelly Hana Setyanti, Raden Andi Sularso Handriyono, and Arnis Budi Susanto. 2023. The Influence of Servant Leadership on Motivation, Work Engagement, Job Satisfaction and Teacher Performance of Vocational Hight School Teachers in Jember City. Quality—Access to Success 24: 261–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Antonakis, John, George Banks, Nicolas Bastardoz, Michael Cole, David Day, Alice Eagly, Olga Epitropaki, Roseanne Foti, William Gardner, Alex Haslam, and et al. 2019. The Leadership Quarterly: State of the journal. The Leadership Quarterly 30: 1–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Azungah, Theophilus. 2018. Qualitative research: Deductive and inductive approaches to data analysis. Qualitative Research Journal 18: 383–400. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bai, Mayangzong, Xinyi Zheng, Xu Huang, Tiantian Jing, Chenhao Yu, Sisi Li, and Zhiruo Zhang. 2023. How serving helps leading: Mediators between servant leadership and affective commitment. Frontiers in Psychology 14: 1170490. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Baquero, Asier. 2023. Authentic leadership, employee work engagement, trust in the leader, and workplace well-being: A moderated mediation model. Psychology Research and Behavior Management 16: 1403–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Barnard, Caa Iaa. 1938. The Functions of the Executive . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bass, Bernard. 1985. Leadership and Performance: Beyond Expectations . New York: Free Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Berraies, Sarra. 2023. Mediating effects of employees’ eudaimonic and hedonic well-being between distributed leadership and ambidextrous innovation: Does employees’ age matter? European Journal of Innovation Management 26: 1271–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bhattacharya, C. B., Sankar Sen, Laura Marie Edinger-Schons, and Michael Neureiter. 2023. Corporate Purpose and Employee Sustainability Behaviors. Journal of Business Ethics 183: 963–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brendel, William, Sang Won Byun, and Mi Hee Park. 2023. Ways of Being: Assessing Presence and Purpose at Work. Journal of Management Spirituality & Religion 20: 53–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bronk, Kendall Cotton, Caleb Mitchell, Elyse Postlewaite, Anne Colby, William Damon, and Zach Swanson. 2023. Family purpose: An empirical investigation of collective purpose. The Journal of Positive Psychology 19: 662–74. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brower, Holly H., F. David Schoorman, and Hwee Hoon Tan. 2000. A model of relational leadership. The Leadership Quarterly 11: 227–50. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brown, Ryan P., Lebena Varghese, Sarah Sullivan, and Sandy Parsons. 2021. The Impact of Professional Coaching on Emerging Leaders. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring 19: 24–37. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bunderson, Stuart, and Anjan V. Thakor. 2022. Higher purpose, banking and stability. Journal of Banking & Finance 140: 106138. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Burns, James MacGregor. 1978. Leadership . Manhattan: Harper & Row. [ Google Scholar ]
• By, Rune Todnem. 2021. Leadership: In pursuit of purpose. Journal of Change Management 21: 30–44. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Caldwell, Cam, and Linda A. Hayes. 2016. Self-efficacy and self-awareness: Moral insights to increased leader effectiveness. Journal of Management Development 35: 1163–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Canavesi, Alice, and Eliana Minelli. 2022. Servant leadership and employee engagement: A qualitative study. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 34: 413–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Capon, Noel, John Farley, and Scott Hoenig. 1990. Determinants of Financial Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Management Science 36: 1143–59. Available online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2632657 (accessed on 4 June 2024).
• Castillo, Elizabeth A., and Mai P. Trinh. 2019. Catalyzing capacity: Absorptive, adaptive, and generative leadership. Journal of Organizational Change Management 32: 356–76. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cavazotte, Flavia, Sylvia Freitas Mello, and Lucia B. Oliveira. 2020. Expatriate’s engagement and burnout: The role of purpose-oriented leadership and cultural intelligence. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research 9: 90–106. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cho, Katherine S. 2023. Purpose and process: Power, equity, and agenda setting. New Directions for Student Leadership 2023: 33–40. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Christensen-Salem, Amanda, Marco Tulio F. Zanini, Fred O. Walumbwa, Ronaldo Parente, Daniel M. Peat, and Jaclyn Perrmann-graham. 2021. Communal solidarity in extreme environments: The role of servant leadership and social resources in building serving culture and service performance. Journal of Business Research 135: 829–39. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Clarke, Thomas. 2020. The contest on corporate purpose: Why Lynn Stout was right and Milton Friedman was wrong. Accounting, Economics and Law: A Convivium 10: 20200145. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cline, Michaela, Paige Roberts, Timothy Werlau, Paloma Hauser, and Cheryl Smith-Miller. 2022. Three good things: Promote work–life balance, reduce burnout, enhance reflection among newly licensed RNs. Nursing Forum 57: 1390–98. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Consoli, Sal. 2021. Uncovering the hidden face of narrative analysis: A reflexive perspective through MAXQDA. System 102: 102611. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cordoba, Emmeline Lagunes, Suzanne Shale, Rachel Clare Evans, and Derek Tracy. 2022. Time to get serious about distributed leadership: Lessons to learn for promoting leadership development for non-consultant career grade doctors in the UK. BMJ Leader 6: 45–49. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Crabtree, Benjamin F., Jenna Howard, William L. Miller, DeANN Cromp, Clarissa Hsu, Katie Coleman, Brian Austin, Margaret Flinter, Leah Tuzzio, and Edward H. Wagner. 2020. Leading Innovative Practice: Leadership Attributes in LEAP Practices. The Milbank Quarterly 98: 399–445. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Crane, Bret. 2022. Eudaimonia in Crisis: How Ethical Purpose Finding Transforms Crisis. Humanistic Management Journal 7: 391–416. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cristofaro, Matheo, Christopher Neck, Pier Luigi Giardino, and Christopher B. Neck. 2023. Self and shared leadership in decision quality: A tale of two sides. Management Decision 61: 2541–63. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Das, Mohit Ranjan, Pramod Pathak, and Mohit Ranjan Das. 2018. Spirituality at Workplace: A Report from Ground Zero. Purushartha—A Journal of Management Ethics and Spirituality 11: 11–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dhamija, Pavitra, Andrea Chiarini, and Shara Shapla. 2023. Technology and leadership styles: A review of trends between 2003 and 2021. The TQM Journal 35: 210–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dimitrov, Kiril. 2022. Organizational Leadership through the Massive Transformative Purpose. Economic Alternatives 28: 318–44. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dorasamy, Nirmala. 2010. Enhancing an ethical culture through purpose-directed leadership for improved public service delivery: A case for South Africa. African Journal of Business Management 4: 56–63. Available online: http://search.proquest.com/docview/1663906542?accountid=40690%5Cnhttp://link.periodicos.capes.gov.br/sfxlcl41?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&genre=article&sid=ProQ:ProQ%3Apqrl&atitle=Enhancing+an+ethical+culture+through+purpo (accessed on 4 June 2024).
• Edgar, Stacey. 2023. Artisan social enterprises in Zambia: Women leveraging purpose to scale impact. Social Enterprise Journal 20: 140–58. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eisenschmidt, Eve, Elina Kuusisto, Katrin Poom-Valickis, and Kirsi Tirri. 2019. Virtues that create purpose for ethical leadership: Exemplary principals from Estonia and Finland. Journal of Beliefs & Values 40: 433–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elo, Satu, and Helvi Kyngäs. 2008. The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing 62: 107–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Enslin, Carla, Michelle Wolfswinkel, and Marlize Terblanche-Smit. 2023. Responsible leadership through purpose-driven brand building: Guidelines for leaders in Africa. South African Journal of Business Management 53: 1–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fiedler, Fred E. 1964. A Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 1: 149–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fitzsimmons, Lexis Bajalia, Yufan Sunny Qin, and Eve R. Heffron. 2022. Purpose vs. mission vs. vision: Persuasive appeals and components in corporate statements. Journal of Communication Management 26: 207–19. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fleischer, Holger. 2021. Corporate Purpose: A Management Concept and its Implications for Company Law. SSRN Electronic Journal 18: 161–89. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fu, Lihua, Zhiying Liu, and Suqin Liao. 2018. Is distributed leadership a driving factor of innovation ambidexterity? An empirical study with mediating and moderating effects. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 39: 388–405. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fu, Qinghua, Abdul Aziz Abdul Rahman, Hui Jiang, Jaward Abbas, and Ubaldo Comite. 2022. Sustainable Supply Chain and Business Performance: The Impact of Strategy, Network Design, Information Systems, and Organizational Structure. Sustainability 14: 1080. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gartenberg, Claudine, and Todd Zenger. 2023. The Firm as a Subsociety: Purpose, Justice, and the Theory of the Firm. Organization Science 34: 1965–80. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gavarkovs, Adam G., Rashmi A. Kusurkar, and Ryan Brydges. 2023. The purpose, adaptability, confidence, and engrossment model: A novel approach for supporting professional trainees’ motivation, engagement, and academic achievement. Frontiers in Education 8: 1–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Geisler, Cheryl. 2018. Coding for Language Complexity: The Interplay Among Methodological Commitments, Tools, and Workflow in Writing Research. Written Communication 35: 215–49. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gil, Alfonso J., Gabriela Bittencourt Gonzalez Mosegui, Rosana Zenezi Moreira, and Mauro J. Eguizabal. 2023. The moderating role of employee proactive behaviour in the relationship between servant leadership and job satisfaction. International Journal of Organizational Analysis 32: 422–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Graen, George B., and Mary Uhl-Bien. 1995. Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly 6: 219–47. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Greenleaf, Robert Kiefner. 1977. Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness . Mahwah: Paulist Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gwartz, Evan, and Kirsty Spence. 2020. Conscious capitalism and sport: Exploring higher purpose in a professional sport organization. Sport Management Review 23: 750–63. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Haar, Jarrod M., and Candice Harris. 2023. A moderated mediation study of high performance work systems and insomnia on New Zealand employees: Job burnout mediating and work-life balance moderating. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 34: 68–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hallinger, Philip, and Jasna Kovačević. 2022. Mapping the intellectual lineage of educational management, administration and leadership, 1972–2020. Educational Management Administration and Leadership 50: 192–216. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Handa, Manoj Chandra. 2023. The leading wisdom development framework: An integrated roadmap for cultivating a sense of purpose and meaning. Journal of Advanced Academics 34: 32–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hartnell, Chad, Amanda Christensen-Salem, Fred O. Walumbwa, Derek Stotler, Flora Chiang, and Thomas A. Birtch. 2023. Manufacturing motivation in the mundane: Servant leadership’s influence on employees’ intrinsic motivation and performance. Journal of Business Ethics 188: 533–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hersey, Paul, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Walter E. Natemeyer. 1979. Situational Leadership, Perception, and the Impact of Power. Group & Organization Studies 4: 418–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hickey, Niamh, Aishling Flaherty, and Patricia Mannix McNamara. 2022. Distributed Leadership: A Scoping Review Mapping Current Empirical Research. Societies 12: 15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hoang, Giang Hien, Elisabeth Wilson-Evered, Leonie Lockstone-Binney, and Tuan Trong Luu. 2021. Empowering leadership in hospitality and tourism management: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 33: 4182–214. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hong, Paul C., Joseph Chacko Chennattuserry, Xiyue Deng, and Margaret M. Hopkins. 2021. Purpose-driven leadership and organizational success: A case of higher educational institutions. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 42: 1004–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hurth, Victoria, and Iain S. Stewart. 2022. Re-purposing Universities: The Path to Purpose. Frontiers in Sustainability 2: 762271. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ingen, Ramon van, Pascale Peters, Melanie De Ruiter, and Henry Robben. 2021. Exploring the meaning of organizational purpose at a new dawn: The development of a conceptual model through expert interviews. Frontiers in Psychology 12: 675543. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Islam, Jamil Ul, Owais Nazir, and Zillur Rahman. 2023. Sustainably engaging employees in food wastage reduction: A conscious capitalism perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production 389: 136091. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Itzkovich, Yariv, Sibylle Heilbrunn, and Ana Aleksic. 2020. Full range indeed? The forgotten dark side of leadership. Journal of Management Development 39: 851–68. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jack, Kirsten, Monica Bianchi, Rosa Dilae Pereira Costa, Keren Grinberg, Gerardina Harnett, Marie_Louise Luiking, Stefan Nilsson, and Janet Mary Elizabeth Scammell. 2022. Clinical leadership in nursing students: A concept analysis. Nurse Education Today 108: 105173. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jasinenko, Anna, and Josephina Steuber. 2023. Perceived organizational purpose: Systematic literature review, construct definition, measurement and potential employee outcomes. Journal of Management Studies 60: 1415–47. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jønsson, Thomas Faurholt, Esther Bahat, and Massimilano Barattucci. 2021. How are empowering leadership, self-efficacy and innovative behavior related to nurses’ agency in distributed leadership in Denmark, Italy and Israel? Journal of Nursing Management 29: 1517–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Judge, Timothy A., Joyce E. Bono, Remus Ilies, and Megan W. Gerhardt. 2002. Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology 87: 765–80. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kaplan, Sarah. 2023. The promises and perils of corporate purpose. Strategic Science 8: 288–301. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kempster, Steve, and Brad Jackson. 2021. Leadership for What, Why, for Whom and Where? A Responsibility Perspective. Journal of Change Management 21: 45–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kempster, Steve, Marian Iszatt-White, and Matt Brown. 2019. Authenticity in leadership: Reframing relational transparency through the lens of emotional labour. Leadership 15: 319–38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, Sunmi, Seok Hee Jeong, and Myoung Hee Seo. 2022. Nurses’ ethical leadership and related outcome variables: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Nursing Management 30: 2308–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Knippenberg, Daan Vaaaa. 2020. Meaning-based leadership. Organizational Psychology Review 10: 6–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Koh, Howard K., Cathy C. Tso, Cyra Perry Dougherty, Emily E. Lazowy, Chelsea P. Heberlein, and Fawn A. Phelps. 2023. Exploring the spiritual foundations of public health leadership. Frontiers in Public Health 11: 1210160. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Konadu, Kingsley, Abigail Opaku Mensah, Samuel Koomson, Ernest Mensah Abraham, Joshua Amuzu, and Joan-Ark Manu Agyapong. 2023. A model for improving the relationship between integrity and work performance. International Journal of Ethics and Systems . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kumpulainen, Milka, and Marko Seppänen. 2022. Combining Web of Science and Scopus datasets in citation-based literature study. Scientometrics 127: 5613–31. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• LaVoi, Samantha, and Eric Haley. 2021. How Pro-Social Purpose Agencies Define Themselves and Their Value: An Emerging Business Model in the Advertising-Agency World. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising 42: 372–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lawson, Crystal, and Dan Weberg. 2023. Leading through times of transformation: Purpose, trust, and co-creation. Nurse Leader 21: 380–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lewis, Clif P., and Maryam Aldossari. 2022. “One of these things is not like the others”: The role of authentic leadership in cross-cultural leadership development. Leadership and Organization Development Journal 43: 1252–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lin, Qin, and Lingfeng Yi. 2023. Survival of the fittest: The multiple paths of entrepreneurial leadership driving adaptive innovation in uncertain environment. European Journal of Innovation Management 26: 1150–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lord, Robert G., Paola Gatti, and Susanna L. M. Chui. 2016. Social-cognitive, relational, and identity-based approaches to leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 136: 119–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Losada-Vazquez, Angel. 2022. Organizational learning at purpose-driven enterprise: Action–research model for leadership improvement. Sustainability 14: 1301. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lu, Shiwen, and Jiseon Ahn. 2023. Assessment of job meaning based on attributes of food-delivery mobile applications. Current Issues in Tourism 1–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Luedi, Markus M. 2022. Leadership in 2022: A perspective. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 36: 229–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Magasi, Chacha. 2021. The role of transformational leadership on employee performance: A perspective of employee empowerment. European Journal of Business and Management Research 6: 21–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Martela, Frank, and Anne B. Pessi. 2018. Significant work is about self-realization and broader purpose: Defining the key dimensions of meaningful work. Frontiers in Psychology 9: 363. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Martinez, Seth-Aaron, and Nahari Leija. 2023. Distinguishing Servant Leadership from Transactional and Transformational Leadership. Advances in Developing Human Resources 25: 141–88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Methley, Abigail M., Stephen Campbell, Carolyn Chew-Graham, Rosalind McNally, and Sudeh Cheraghi-Sohi. 2014. PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: A comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Services Research 14: 579. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Meynhardt, Timo, Josephina Steuber, and Maximilian Feser. 2023. The Leipzig Leadership Model: Measuring leadership orientations. Current Psychology 43: 9005–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moher, David, Alessandro Liberati, Jennifer Tetzlaff, and Douglas G. Altman. 2009. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine 6: e1000097. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mouton, Nico. 2019. A literary perspective on the limits of leadership: Tolstoy’s critique of the great man theory. Leadership 15: 81–102. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mulyani, Sri, Anas A. Salameh, Aan Komariah, Anton Timoshin Nik Alif Amri NikHashim, R. Siti Pupi Fauziah, Mulyaningsih Mulyaningsih, Israr Ahmad, and Sajid Mohy Ul din. 2021. Emotional Regulation as a Remedy for Teacher Burnout in Special Schools: Evaluating School Climate, Teacher’s Work-Life Balance and Children Behavior. Frontiers in Psychology 12: 655850. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nakamura, Julia S., Ying Chen, Tyler J. VanderWeele, and Eric S. Kim. 2022. What makes life purposeful? Identifying the antecedents of a sense of purpose in life using a lagged exposure-wide approach. SSM Population Health 19: 101235. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nazir, Owais, Jamid Ul, and Zillur Rahman. 2021. Effect of CSR participation on employee sense of purpose and experienced meaningfulness: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 46: 123–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nguyen, Nguyen Thi Thao, Nguyen Phong Nguyen, and Tu Thanh Hoai. 2021. Ethical leadership, corporate social responsibility, firm reputation, and firm performance: A serial mediation model. Heliyon 7: e06809. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ocasio, William, Mathew Kraatz, and David Chandler. 2023. Making Sense of Corporate Purpose. Strategy Science 8: 123–38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ogunfowora, Babatunde, Meena Andiappan, Madelynn Stackhouse, and Christianne Varty. 2023. CEO ethical leadership as a unique source of substantive and rhetorical ethical signals for attracting job seekers: The moderating role of job seekers’ moral identity. Journal of Organizational Behavior 44: 1380–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Olin, Karolina, Charlotte Klinga, Mirjam Ekstedt, and Karin Pukk-Härenstam. 2023. Exploring everyday work as a dynamic non-event and adaptations to manage safety in intraoperative anaesthesia care: An interview study. BMC Health Services Research 23: 1–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Page, Matthew J., Joanne E. McKenzie, Patrick M. Bossuyt, Isabelle Boutron, Tammy C. Hoffmann, Cynthia D. Mulrow, Larissa Shamseer, Jennifer M. Tetzlaff, Ellie A. Akl, Sue E. Brennan, and et al. 2021. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ , 372. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Panojan, Pavalakanthan, Kanchana K. S. Perera, and Rajaratnam Dilakshan. 2022. Work-life balance of professional quantity surveyors engaged in the construction industry. International Journal of Construction Management 22: 751–68. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pate, Larry B., and Donald C. Heiman. 1987. A Test of the Vroom-Yetton Decision Model in Seven Field Settings. Personnel Review 16: 22–26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Peeters, Robin, Daan Westra, Arno J. A. van Raak, and Dirk Ruwaard. 2023. So Happy Together: A Review of the Literature on the Determinants of Effectiveness of Purpose-Oriented Networks in Health Care. Medical Care Research and Review 80: 266–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Piwowar-Sulej, Katarzyna, and Qaisar Iqbal. 2023. Leadership styles and sustainable performance: A systematic literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production 382: 134600. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ponting, Sandra SunAh. 2020. Organizational identity change: Impacts on hotel leadership and employee wellbeing. The Service Industries Journal 40: 6–26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pulido-Martos, Manuel, Leire Gartzia, José María Augusto-Landa, and Esther Lopez-Zafra. 2023. Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence: Allies in the development of organizational affective commitment from a multilevel perspective and time-lagged data. In Review of Managerial Science. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Qin, Yufan Sunny, Marica W. DiStaso, Alexis Fitzsimmons, Eve Heffron, and Linjuan Rita Men. 2022. How purpose-driven organizations influenced corporate actions and employee trust during the global COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Strategic Communication 16: 426–43. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rai, Puneet. 2020. The rising interest in workplace spirituality: Micro, meso and macro perspectives. Purushartha 13: 56–66. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rashmi, Kumari, and Aakanksha Kataria. 2022. Work–life balance: A systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 42: 1028–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rey, Carlos, and Miquel Bastons. 2018. Three dimensions of effective mission implementation. Long Range Planning 51: 580–85. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rindova, Violina P., and Luis L. Martins. 2023. Moral imagination, the collective desirable, and strategic purpose. Strategy Science 8: 170–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Roberts, Dennis Caaa. 2020. Discovering Purpose: A Life-Long Journey. New Directions for Student Leadership 2020: 123–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rocha, Hector, Michael Pirson, and Roy Suddaby. 2021. Business with Purpose and the Purpose of Business Schools: Re-Imagining Capitalism in a Post Pandemic World: A Conversation with Jay Coen Gilbert, Raymond Miles, Christian Felber, Raj Sisodia, Paul Adler, and Charles Wookey. Journal of Management Inquiry 30: 354–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salhieh, Loay, Ala’a Mehiar, Ismail Abushaikha, Hendrik Reefke, and Loay Bani-Ismail. 2023. The strategic fit between strategic purchasing and purchasing involvement: The moderating role of leadership styles. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 41: 559–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sarwar, Uzma, Muhammad Aamir, Yu Bichao, and Zhongwen Chen. 2023. Authentic leadership, perceived organizational support, and psychological capital: Implications for job performance in the education sector. Frontiers in Psychology 13: 1084963. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sarwar, Uzma, Samina Zamir, Kiran Fazal, Yang Hong, and Qi Zhan Yong. 2022. Impact of leadership styles on innovative performance of female leaders in Pakistani Universities. PLoS ONE 17: e0266956. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schiavenato, Martin, and Frances Chu. 2021. PICO: What it is and what it is not. Nurse Education in Practice 56: 103194. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Selznick, Philips. 1957. Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. In American Sociological Review . Berkeley: University of California Press, vol. 23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shahab, Moh Ali, Agus Sobari, and Udin Udin. 2018. Empowering Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating Roles of Psychological Empowerment and Emotional Intelligence in Medical Service Industry. International Journal of Economics and Business Administration VI: 80–91 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shoukat, Muhammad Haroon, Syed Asim Shah, and Dilnaz Muneeb. 2023. Shared leadership and team performance in health care: How intellectual capital and team learning intervene in this relationship. The Learning Organization 30: 426–45. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Singh, Sanjay Kumar, Manlio Del Giudice, Shlomo Y. Tarba, and Paola De Bernardi. 2022. Top Management Team Shared Leadership, Market-Oriented Culture, Innovation Capability, and Firm Performance. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 69: 2544–54. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Steenkamp, Hilke, and Ganga S. Dhanesh. 2023. Care-based relationship management during remote work in a crisis: Empathy, purpose, and diversity climate as emergent employee-organization relational maintenance strategies. Public Relations Review 49: 102371. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tan, Ronny, and Ferdi Antonio. 2022. New insights on employee adaptive performance during the COVID-19 pandemic: Empirical evidence from Indonesia. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation 18: 175–206. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tate, Kaitlyn, Tatiana Penconek, Bruna Moreno Dias, Greta G. Cummings, and Andrea Bernardes. 2023. Authentic leadership, organizational culture and the effects of hospital quality management practices on quality of care and patient satisfaction. Journal of Advanced Nursing 79: 3102–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Thompson, Geir, and Lars Glasø. 2018. Situational leadership theory: A test from a leader-follower congruence approach. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 39: 574–91. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Trachik, Benjamin, Emma H. Moscardini, Michelle L. Ganulin, Jen L. McDonald, Ashlee B. McKeon, Michael N. Dretsch, Raymond P. Tucker, and Walter J. Sowden. 2022. Perceptions of purpose, cohesion, and military leadership: A path analysis of potential primary prevention targets to mitigate suicidal ideation. Military Psychology 34: 366–75. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Trachik, Benjamim, Raymond P. Tucker, Michelle L. Ganulin, Julie C. Merrill, Matthew L. LoPresti, Oscar A. Cabrera, and Michael N. Dretsch. 2020. Leader provided purpose: Military leadership behavior and its association with suicidal ideation. Psychiatry Research 285: 112722. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tuin, Lars Van, Wilmar B. Schaufeli, Anja Van den Broeck, and Williem van Rhenen. 2020. A corporate purpose as an antecedent to employee motivation and work engagement. Frontiers in Psychology 11: 572343. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Vandagriff, Susan. 2023. Do We Know What We Publish? Comparing Self-Reported Publication Data to Scopus and Web of Science. Serials Review 49: 15–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• VERBI Software. 2022. MAXQDA 2022 [Computer Software]. Available online: https://www.maxqda.com (accessed on 4 June 2024).
• Vugt, Mark, and Christopher Rueden. 2020. From genes to minds to cultures: Evolutionary approaches to leadership. The Leadership Quarterly 31: 101404. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Walker, Dayna Herbert, and Rebecca J. Reichard. 2020. On Purpose: Leader Self-Development and the Meaning of Purposeful Engagement. Journal of Leadership Studies 14: 26–38. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Williams, Oliver. 2018. Restorying the Purpose of Business: An Interpretation of the Agenda of the UN Global Compact. African Journal of Business Ethics 12: 85–95. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xhemajli, Ariana, Mimoza Luta, and Emin Neziraj. 2022. Applying distributed leadership in micro and small enterprises of kosovo. WSEAS Transactions On Business And Economics 19: 1860–66. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zaccaro, Stephen J. 2007. Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist 62: 6–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, Liming, Miles Yang, Zhenyuan Wang, and Grant Michelson. 2023. Trends in the Dynamic Evolution of Corporate Social Responsibility and Leadership: A Literature Review and Bibliometric Analysis. Journal of Business Ethics 182: 135–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhu, Jinlong, Zhenyu Liao, Kai Chi Yam, and Russell E. Johnson. 2018. Shared leadership: A state-of-the-art review and future research agenda. Journal of Organizational Behavior 39: 834–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Ribeiro, M.F.; Costa, C.G.d.; Ramos, F.R. Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context. Adm. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148

Ribeiro MF, Costa CGd, Ramos FR. Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context. Administrative Sciences . 2024; 14(7):148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148

Ribeiro, Marco Ferreira, Carla Gomes da Costa, and Filipe R. Ramos. 2024. "Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context" Administrative Sciences 14, no. 7: 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, supplementary material.

ZIP-Document (ZIP, 98 KiB)

Further Information

Mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Case Study: When Two Leaders on the Senior Team Hate Each Other

• Boris Groysberg
• Katherine Connolly Baden

How should a CEO address friction between his CFO and the sales chief?

In this fictional case, the CEO of a sports apparel manufacturer is faced with an ongoing conflict between two of his top executives. Specifically, the head of sales and the CFO are at each other’s throats and the tension is having a ripple effect on their teams and the rest of the organization. The CEO, who tends to avoid conflict himself, is struggling with how to respond. His options include changing the company compensation scheme to encourage better collaboration, firing the two leaders, getting them each a coach, and doing more team building activities.

The feedback in the 360-degree reviews was supposed to be anonymous. But it was crystal clear who’d made the negative comments in the assessment of one executive.

• BG Boris Groysberg is a professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior unit at Harvard Business School and a faculty affiliate at the school’s Race, Gender & Equity Initiative. He is the coauthor, with Colleen Ammerman, of Glass Half-Broken: Shattering the Barriers That Still Hold Women Back at Work (Harvard Business Review Press, 2021). bgroysberg
• KB Katherine Connolly Baden is a research associate at Harvard Business School.

Partner Center

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, leadership theory and practice: a “case” in point.

Management Decision

ISSN : 0025-1747

Article publication date: 1 December 2003

Leadership theory has little value if it cannot be applied to real world situations. A summary review of the literature on leadership theory is provided here first. A disguised real case concerning Ted Shade, a Vice‐President at Galactic Chips, Inc. is then provided which describes a manager who is extremely task‐oriented. The case analysis follows. It includes questions and answers which connect leadership theory to case specifics and requires learners to analyze the case using differing leadership models.

• Management styles

Armandi, B. , Oppedisano, J. and Sherman, H. (2003), "Leadership theory and practice: a “case” in point", Management Decision , Vol. 41 No. 10, pp. 1076-1088. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740310509607

Copyright © 2003, MCB UP Limited

Related articles

All feedback is valuable.

Please share your general feedback

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Contact Customer Support

Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.

We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.

Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective

Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or media team here

Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.

Home > Books > Leadership - Advancing Great Leaders and Leadership

Leadership Styles during Disruption: A Multi-Case Study

Submitted: 08 July 2022 Reviewed: 13 September 2022 Published: 28 October 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.108029

Cite this chapter

There are two ways to cite this chapter:

From the Edited Volume

Leadership - Advancing Great Leaders and Leadership

Edited by Joseph Crawford

To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www.cbspd.com | [email protected]

Chapter metrics overview

397 Chapter Downloads

Impact of this chapter

Total Chapter Downloads on intechopen.com

Total Chapter Views on intechopen.com

This chapter reviews relevant literature in order to identify the leadership framework and profile that may better characterize entrepreneurs and business leaders that eventually founded or developed disruptively successful firms—popularly known as “unicorns.” Next, the chapter describes a conducted multi-case study that demonstrates a strong correlation between the positive checkmarks in the selected leadership framework—visionary leadership—and the profile of the leaders of nine different international corporations that became industry leaders in less than 20 years (Apple, Google, Microsoft, Facebook, General Electrics, Toyota, Alibaba, Tencent, and Inditex).

• visionary leadership
• disruptive success
• disruptive innovation
• discontinuous innovation
• revolutionary innovation
• entrepreneurship
• multi-case study on leadership

Author Information

Alberto abadia *.

• University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

During the last two decades, there is an increasing number of leadership theories and frameworks. However, less work has been done in terms of determining which frameworks would suit better some particular organizational outputs. The study described in this chapter explores how some leadership models may be linked to some exceptional occurrences, such as “disruptive success.” This label can be applied to startups or more mature—but not yet elite—companies that, at some point, grew fast and became world leaders in a period of less than 20 years.

After giving a quick review of state-of-the-art of the leadership research and theories [ 1 ], this chapter shortlists, briefly explains, and finally analyzes the candidate frameworks and chooses the apparently most suitable one. Next, the chapter describes a conducted multi-case study that tested the actual possible correlation between the chosen leadership framework and the profile of the leaders of their “disruptively successful” corporations. The option of the multi-case approach for the testing is the most fitting in the explained context, given the limited number of possible samples and the unquantifiable nature of the analysis. The other most plausible alternative option, direct interviews or direct surveys, would not have been doable, given the challenge of obtaining response from a large number of highly profiled business leaders.

2. Theoretical framework: leadership styles

The article “Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives” [ 1 ] provides a review of the state-of-the-art research in terms of leadership research of the last two decades, including most of the theories and frameworks, except that of visionary leadership, which has anyway been included in the analysis [ 2 ]. Taking into consideration the profile that could be expected in the context of startups and an innovation-led context [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], best framework candidates for further evaluation would be (1) transformational leadership, (2) charismatic leadership, (3) entrepreneurial leadership, and (4) visionary leadership.

2.1 Transformational leadership

The concept of transformational leadership was introduced by James MacGregor Burns in his book Leadership [ 4 ] and then further developed in Transforming Leadership: A New Pursuit of Happiness [ 5 ]. Another researcher, Bernard M. Bass, expanded on Burns’ work by describing the psychological mechanisms behind transforming leadership. He applied the term “transformational” instead of “transforming.” Bass argued that transformational leadership has four constitutive parts [ 6 , 7 ] which are (1) idealized influence, (2) inspirational motivation, (3) intellectual stimulation, and (4) individualized consideration. On the opposite, transactional leaders, which frequently are less successful in terms of outcomes [ 5 ], usually adopt four possible approaches which are (1) contingency reward—rewards in exchange of support, (2) management by exception (active)—monitoring and just acting when a corrective deed is necessary, (3) management by exception (passive)—no monitoring and just acting when a corrective deed is necessary, and (4) laissez faire—leadership avoidance [ 6 , 7 ].

2.2 Charismatic leadership

Long ago, Max Weber described charismatic authority in his book Economy and Society [ 8 ], where he identified it as one of three types of legitimate domination. According to Weber, charisma is defined as a set of qualities in a person that allows him or her “to be set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities … regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader” [ 8 ]. A charismatic leader is a person, who has the ability to influence people and who, consequently, has some controlling power over them [ 9 ]. A widely accepted framework developed and tested by Conger and Kanungo [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ] defines four characteristics in charismatic leaders: (1) possessing and articulating a vision, (2) willing to take risk to achieve the vision, (3) exhibiting sensibility to the needs of followers, and (4) demonstrating noble behavior.

2.3 Entrepreneurial leadership

The definition of entrepreneurial leadership can be traced back to different theories about entrepreneurship [ 14 ], entrepreneurial orientation [ 15 , 16 ], and entrepreneurial management [ 16 ]. “Entrepreneurial Leadership is that leadership that creates visionary scenarios that are used to assemble and mobilize a ‘supporting cast’ of participants who become committed by the vision to the discovery and exploitation of strategic value creation” [ 17 ]. The article “Entrepreneurial leadership: developing and measuring a cross-cultural construct” [ 17 ] compares all the theories about leadership and entrepreneurship. In the case of entrepreneurial leadership, Gupta, MacMillan, and Surie came up with a list of 19 leadership attributes that appeared to be the most relevant [ 17 ]. They grouped the remaining attributes into two “enactments” and five roles that would help the analysis in case that this one is the chosen leadership framework [ 17 ].

2.4 Visionary leadership

“Visionary leaders are those who inspire extraordinary levels of achievement in followers through an inspiring vision and through other behaviors” [ 2 ]. The article “Characteristics of Visionary Leadership” highlights the relevance of certain management traits in the context of greenfield projects and then associates the following attributes to those of a visionary leader [ 18 ]: (1) creators of a positive and inspirational vision, (2) supporters of organized learning and growth inside the organization, (3) innovators, and (4) pioneers.

3.1 Framework selection

The four models that were considered potentially suitable for a context of disruptive success—transformational, charismatic, entrepreneurial, and visionary—underwent a further scrutiny in order to determine which one would better suit the context of disruptive success, as it is briefly described in the next paragraph.

The original term “transformational” already implies the existence of some entity that experiences transformation, and it is not so suitable in the context of completely new startups [ 7 , 19 ]. Charismatic leaders emerge in times of instability, change, or crises, but many critics argue that charismatic leaders tend to forget the group’s benefit and try to gain most of the attention for themselves. This reality implies that collective or organizational outputs may not always be prioritized or maximized, since that is not the main objective for this type of leaders [ 9 ]. Entrepreneurial leadership framework appears to be a suitable option for the study in terms of effectively measuring the entrepreneurial aspect in leadership, but it does not really screen or measure elements that may impact discontinuous innovation [ 17 ], which would be mandatory for the chosen context. Therefore, the framework that appeared to suit the best in terms of analyzing environments that combine entrepreneurship and innovation is that of visionary leadership [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Eventually, there is no assumption on what the results would have been or would be if some other of these frameworks would have been tested in the study. In the case of the selected framework, the results are the ones that tell if this choice was right.

3.2 Case selection

There are few companies—similar to Apple, Microsoft, or Google—that are really disruptively successful over the span of, for instance, a decade, so it is not possible to collect enough samples as to conduct a statistical study. Besides, the analyzed variables are not quantitative in nature. Multiple theorical and practical studies indicate that the longitudinal multi-case approach is the best one in terms of properly investigating the results of qualitative inputs [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. In order to choose the specific companies or cases, disruptively successful firms, the following three criteria were applied: (1) the pool of chosen companies should be located in, at least, three different geographical realms i.e. North America, Western Europe and Eastern Asia, (2) the chosen corporations should be at the highest possible position in the rank of global top 100 companies as per market value [ 29 ], and (2) those firms should have become industry leaders in (a) a relatively short period of time—less than 20 years, and (b) after leveraging some competitive advantage based on discontinuous innovation.

An overwhelming percentage of the disruptively successful companies in the top 100 as per market capitalization are American and, mostly, they are located in Silicon Valley. Nine was the maximum number of samples in the list that allowed to keep a reasonable geographical balance across several geographic realms without mixing firms that were not really comparable in terms of size or level of achievements. Nine is also a number in the range of similar studies conducted in the past. For instance, the number was three in the case of the study “Internationalization of small- and medium-sized enterprises: a multi case study” [ 30 ], four, in the case of the study “Competitive product-service systems: lessons from a multi-case study” [ 31 ], and 10 in the case of the study “Knowledge management critical failure factors: a multi-case study” [ 32 ].

The list of selected American corporations included the top five that could be considered disruptively successful firms as per the rapid growth: Apple, Google, Microsoft, General Electric, and Facebook [ 29 ]. The other American companies ranked in-between in the original list were not disruptively successful ones e.g. Exxon Mobil, Berkshire Hathaway, Wells Fargo, and Johnson and Johnson [ 29 ].

The only large-enough Western European disruptively successful company that also met the criteria was the Spanish firm Inditex—number 67 as per market capitalization [ 29 ]. On the other hand, the Eastern Asian disruptively successful companies that ranked high enough in the global top 100 were Toyota Motors, Alibaba and Tencent—15, 22, and 32 [ 29 ].

Apple Inc.; Steve Jobs. USA

Google (Alphabet, Inc.); Larry Page. USA

Microsoft Corporation; Bill Gates. USA

General Electric; Thomas Edison. USA

Facebook, Inc.; Mark Zuckerberg. USA

Toyota Motor Corporation; Taiichi Ohno. Japan

Alibaba Group Holding Limited; Jack Ma. China

Tencent Holdings Limited; Ma Huateng. China

Industria de Diseño Textil, S.A. (Inditex, owner of Zara and other clothing retailing chains); Amancio Ortega. Spain

4. Multi-case study: findings

4.1 rankings of leadership.

Table 1 summarizes the findings on rankings associated with the four above-mentioned features.

Feature comparison between studied firms and founders.

It can be observed that, in 89% of the cases, the leaders either outperform their already outperforming firms, in terms of “value” rankings—Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Amancio Ortega— or enjoy even more prestige and recognition than the companies that they started up. Only in the case of Larry Page, the achievements and profile of the leader appears to be, arguably, less remarkable than that of his own company.

4.2 Steve Jobs, Apple Inc.

Apple Inc., a multinational technology company, was founded by Steven Paul Jobs—known as Steve Jobs—in 1977, in Los Altos, California, USA [ 38 ]. In 2016, Apple ranked number 1 in the world in terms of market capitalization. Steve Jobs ranked top in the list of the 20 most influential Americans of all times [ 34 ].

Jobs was raised by adoptive parents in Cupertino, California—in Silicon Valley. His passions kept changing over the time. He dropped out of Reed College, in Portland, took a job at Atari Corporation as a videogame designer in early 1974, and saved enough money for a pilgrimage to India [ 39 ]. In 1976, back in Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs and his former friend, Stephen Wozniak, worked on a computer design of their own, the Apple I [ 39 ]. Jobs and Wozniak later designed a far better product, the Apple II [ 39 ].

Over the last four decades, Apple has been involved and played a leading role in a number of disruptive and revolutionary innovations. The list includes personal computers, music distribution, tablet computing, mobile phones and digital publishing. Elements of disruptive innovation can be found in at least four of the items in Apple’s list: personal computers, music distribution, tablet computing, and digital publishing. iPhones would belong to the category of revolutionary innovations [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ].

Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobs official biographer, described the founder of Apple as a “creative entrepreneur whose creativity, passion for perfection and ferocious drive revolutionized six industries: personal computers, animated movies, music, phones, tablet computing, and digital publishing” [ 44 ]. Jobs, pioneered devices such as iMacs, iPods, iPhones, iTunes, and iPads and initiated projects such as Pixar and Apple computers [ 18 ].

Some Jobs’ words, recorded in the mentioned documentary Triumph of the Nerds [ 45 ], can give a sense of his ability for creating positive and inspirational visions [ 18 ]:

To me, the spark of that (birth of personal computer industry in Silicon Valley in the early seventies) was that it was something beyond the sort of you see every day. It is the same that causes people to wantna be poets instead of bankers, and I think this is a wonderful thing. And I think that same spirit can be put into products. And these products can be manufactured and given to people and they can sense that spirit [ 45 ].

Regarding the second attribute of visionary leadership [ 18 ], which is supporting organized learning and growth within the organization, Jobs spoke eloquently about its importance, from his own point of view:

“The people who are doing the work are the moving force behind the Macintosh. My job is to create a space for them, to clear out the rest of the organization and keep it at bay” [ 46 ].

“Innovation has nothing to do with how many R&D dollars you have. When Apple came up with the Mac, IBM was spending at least 100 times more on R&D. It’s not about money. It’s about the people you have, how you’re led, and how much you get it” [ 47 ].

4.3 Larry Page, Google/Alphabet

Google was started in 1998 in Menlo Park—California, USA. Founders were two students of Stanford University, Sergey Brin, and Larry Page [ 48 ]. Google’s beginnings were less humble than those of earlier Silicon Valley startups at the time, because the two founders were able to initially raise US$1 million US dollars [ 49 ].

Larry Page met Sergey Brin when Larry entered the doctorate program at Stanford. Both students were interested in finding a way for extracting useful information from the mass of data in the Internet. With that purpose, they devised a new type of search engine tool to track the backing links of each site. They called the new search engine Google—a name derived from a misspelling of the word googol [ 48 ].

Therefore, Google’s initial success was not based on disruptive innovation, but rather on revolutionary innovation—the development of relevancy ranking in the search engine sector [ 49 , 50 ].

In essence, Google’s business model has been labeled as continuous disruptive innovation [ 51 ] or continuous innovation [ 50 ]. These labels define a concept different than Christensen’s. Google’s innovation model is based on a hub—Googleplex—that attracts talent; this is the same model than Edison’s [ 50 , 52 , 53 ]. Eventually, during the last two decades, this model helped Google to be involved in a relevant number of discontinuous innovations, including Android, YouTube, Google Books, and Google Maps, and some continuous ones, such as Chrome or Gmail [ 54 , 55 ].

There is some dispute among scholars regarding the quality of Page’s leadership strength, especially during his early tenure [ 56 ]. Still, there are little doubts that Page congregates the four attributes that define a visionary leader, as several authors already validated in their studies [ 18 , 57 , 58 ]. Several quotes from Larry Page that highlight his visionary skills are as follows:

On being an inspirator: “What is the one-sentence summary of how you change the world? Always work hard on something uncomfortably exciting!” [ 59 ].

On his role as a supporter of organized learning and growth inside the organization: “My job as a leader is to make sure everybody in the company has great opportunities, and that they feel they’re having a meaningful impact and are contributing to the good of society. As a world, we’re doing a better job of that. My goal is for Google to lead, not follow that” [ 59 ]. On being an innovator: “Invention is not enough. [Nikola] Tesla invented the electric power we use, but he struggled to get it out to people. You have to combine both things: invention and innovation focus, plus the company that can commercialize things and get them to people” [ 59 ]. On being a pioneer: “Lots of companies don’t succeed over time. What do they fundamentally do wrong? They usually miss the future. I try to focus on that: What is the future really going to be? And how do we create it? And how do we power our organization to really focus on that and really drive it at a high rate?” [ 59 ].

Page’s personality traits, like his introverted tendencies, may not fit the profile of a charismatic leader [ 55 , 56 , 58 , 60 ], but he definitively does in that of a visionary leader. Eventually, it is interesting to notice that many other leaders analyzed in this study also are, apparently, introvert, e.g. Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg.

4.4 Thomas Edison, General electric

General Electric (GE), a multinational technology corporation, was founded by Thomas Alva Edison in 1889, in Schenectady, New York, USA. Since then, GE has been in the lists of top ranked companies in the USA [ 61 ].

In 1859, Edison quit school and began working as a train boy on the railroad between Detroit and Port Huron. Edison took advantage of the opportunity to learn telegraphy and, in 1863, he became an apprentice telegrapher. By 1869, he thought that he had made enough progress with a duplex telegraph—a device capable of transmitting two messages simultaneously on one single wire—and abandoned telegraphy for full-time entrepreneurship. At that time, Edison moved to New York City, where he initially partnered with Frank L. Pope, an electrical expert, and produced the Edison Universal Stock Printer [ 62 ]. During the next decade, Edison grew fast as successful mogul [ 62 ]. By 1889, he had full ownership or participation in many electricity-related companies that got then merged. The resulting corporation was General Electric Company (GE) [ 61 , 63 ].

From the very beginning, General Electric adopted an innovation development strategy similar to Google’s. The actual scheme was not so much based on sparks of disruptive innovation and genius, but on a systematic approach toward producing inventions [ 64 ]. This method required concentration of researchers and projects in one spot. The first chosen location was Menlo Park, in New Jersey. Menlo Park hub was then succeeded by a larger laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey [ 53 ]. Both hubs developed a long list of innovations [ 53 ]. Some of the most relevant ones were the phonograph, the incandescent electric light and power, the motion picture camera, and the alkaline storage battery [ 53 ].

Thomas Edison ranks in the top of almost every list of all-time greatest innovators, pioneers, and entrepreneurs. He registered more than 1000 patents in the US alone [ 53 ] and founded more than 300 companies [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 53 ]. Edison’s role on the development of these technologies and later commercialization of them clearly qualifies him as visionary, innovator, and pioneer [ 18 ]. Edison also was one of the first entrepreneurs to apply the principles of organized teamwork to the process of invention [ 65 ].

4.5 Bill Gates, Microsoft

In 1975 William Henry Gates III—known as Bill Gates—, a student then at Harvard University, and his friend, Paul Allen, partnered and founded a developing software company, called Microsoft [ 66 ]. First, they adopted BASIC, a programming language used at the time on larger computers, as the core of their work. By 1980, Gates managed to convince a large computer manufacturing multinational, IBM, to depend on Microsoft for every software related to personal computers (PCs). Then, other manufacturers of IBM-compatible PCs also turned to Microsoft in search of its products. By 1990, Gates was the PC industry’s king [ 67 ].

Microsoft’s initial success was based on one disruptive innovation—personal computers and related software [ 66 ]. Later, Microsoft also played a key role in another emerging industry: gaming—Xbox [ 68 , 69 , 70 ].

Gates is as introverted, similar to Larry Page [ 45 , 55 ] and, definitively, he is not as charismatic as Steve Jobs [ 39 , 45 , 71 , 72 ], but, still, he has been equally visionary. Bill Gates clearly fits in the description of an innovator, a pioneer, and a supporter of organized learning and growth [ 45 , 67 , 71 , 72 , 73 ].

4.6 Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook

On February 4, 2004, Mark Zuckerberg, a Harvard student, launched the facebook.com , a directory in which fellow students entered their information and photos into a template. Within 2 weeks, half of the students had signed up [ 74 ]. Then, his two roommates, Chris Hughes and Dustin Moskovitz, helped him add a few features and they made Facebook available to other universities [ 74 ]. It differed from other social media sites at the time in the fact that it required real names and e-mail addresses [ 74 ]. In 2004, the three partners moved to Palo Alto, California, where venture capitalist Peter Thiel invested in the firm. In May 2005, Facebook received additional money from a venture capital firm (US$12.7 million) [ 74 ]. Facebook’s initial success was therefore based on one single but relevant disruptive innovation: social media [ 71 , 74 ].

Among other achievements, Mark Zuckerberg reached the top five in the list of wealthiest people on earth [ 33 ]. Again, Zuckerberg is as charismatic as Jobs or Edison [ 39 , 45 , 71 , 72 ]. However, he definitively qualifies as a visionary leader. Besides other studies, interviews, and papers that prove this point [ 55 , 71 , 72 , 75 ], Zuckerberg produced a number of quotes that support this statement. On being an inspirator: “We look for people who are passionate about something. In a way, it almost doesn’t matter what you’re passionate about” [ 75 ]. On being a supporter of organized learning and growth inside the organization: “I think as a company, if you can get those two things right–having a clear direction on what you are trying to do and bringing in great people who can execute on the stuff–then you can do pretty well” [ 75 ]. On being an innovator: “People think innovation is just having a good idea but a lot of it is just moving quickly and trying a lot of things” [ 75 ]. On being a pioneer: “In a world that’s changing really quickly, the only strategy that is guaranteed to fail is not taking risks” [ 75 ].

4.7 Amancio Ortega, Industria de Diseño Textil (Inditex)

The Inditex group is a multinational textile fashion retailer firm founded in 1985 in A Coruña, Spain. Inditex currently owns famous brands such as Zara, Pull & Bear, Massimo Dutti, Bershka, Stradivarius, Oysho, Zara Home, and Uterqüe. Inditex ranked 67 in the global top 100 as per market capitalization [ 29 ].

As a youth in A Coruña, Galicia, in northwestern Spain, Amacio Ortega gained an entry into the garment business by working as a delivery boy for a men’s shirt store and assistant in a tailor’s shop. He later managed a clothing store that catered to wealthy clients. Finally, Ortega saw an opportunity of appealing to a much broader audience by selling garment at extremely competitive prices. His proposal was based on reducing production costs by using less expensive materials and more efficient manufacturing systems. Ortega first applied this approach in a bathrobe business, Confecciones Goa, company that he founded in 1963. Then, in 1975, Ortega started the first Zara’s ready-to-wear clothing store. Zara soon became not only an internationally famous chain but also the flagship of the holding company Inditex, which he founded 10 years later [ 76 ].

The success of Inditex—and H&M, its main competitor—is ultimately based on a revolutionary innovation called “fast fashion” [ 77 ]. Inditex devised a new model of supply chain, the Agile Supply Chain (ASC), that allows its fashion retailer chains to update products just in time [ 77 , 78 ]. In this process, store managers constantly communicate customer feedbacks to collection designers, who immediately update models and production [ 77 , 78 ]. Inditex’s supply chain operations focus on three aspects: maximizing resources used, minimizing inventory, and minimizing lead times [ 78 ]. Inditex produces a significant amount of its production in-house and makes sure that its own factories reserve 85% of their capacity for in-season adjustments [ 77 ]. Inditex’s business model, which is based on flexibility and speed, requires a vertically integrated value chain that differs greatly from that of other competitors, like Benetton and Mango.

Amancio Ortega, who was the one that directly conceived and engineered the above-mentioned business model, clearly is an innovator and a pioneer [ 18 ]. He also supports organized learning and growth inside of his firm. An article in The Economist describes how Ortega works:

He has never had his own office, desk or desktop computer, preferring to direct his firm while standing with colleagues in a design room of Zara Woman, the flagship line. One former long-term CEO of Inditex, and Mr. Ortega’s business partner for 31 years, José María Castellano, says that his ex-boss’s working method is to discuss things intensely with small groups, delegate paperwork, listen hard to others and prefer oral over written communication [ 79 ].

“Ortega eats lunch with his employees in the company cafeteria. He can regularly be found sharing table on the factory floor with some of the designers, fabric experts and buyers” [ 80 ]. “Dear colleague, dear friend”: these are the words that, both, Ortega and Steve Jobs, used in letters addressed to employees [ 81 ].

Ortega also is, as most of the previously analyzed leaders, an introvert. “Reclusive,” “secretive,” and “reserved” are words frequently used to describe him. Amancio Ortega has guarded his privacy so jealously that his company only released a photograph of him when the firm was first listed [ 82 ].

4.8 Taiichi Ohno, Toyota Motor Corporation

Toward the end of the second world war, Taiichi Ohno worked as a production engineer for Toyota, a Japanese car manufacture founded in Japan by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937 [ 83 ]. In those days, Toyota was much less productive than its Detroit-based competitors, the Big Three—General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler [ 83 ]. In 1956, Ohno visited the USA to learn their supply and inventory methods. In that trip, he visited one of the supermarkets of the Piggly Wiggly chain [ 84 , 85 ]. Ohno observed then how customers picked up a number of items from shelves and, in turn, the supermarket quickly and precisely replenished them [ 84 ]. This model gave Ohno ideas on how to reduce inventory and simplify assembly lines [ 84 , 86 , 87 ]. Based on the streamlined approach to replenishment, Ohno devised the Toyota Production System, which is more broadly known as lean manufacturing or Just-In-Time (JIT) inventory system. That gave Toyota an edge in terms of productivity and quality [ 86 , 87 ]. The new system made Toyota the car industry leader. Since that time, the principle of lean manufacturing has been adopted by many firms and industries [ 84 , 86 , 87 ].

Based on this history, there is no doubt that Taiichi Ohno was a visionary, an innovator, and a pioneer [ 18 ]. The other quality of a visionary leader, supporting internal growth, was clearly evinced by the way that he spoke about Toyota and its organizational style over the length of his career. For instance, he described Toyota in the following way: “The Toyota style is not to create results by working hard. It is a system that says there is no limit to people’s creativity. People don’t go to Toyota to work, they go there to think” [ 88 ].

In terms of actively supporting internal growth:

When you go out into the workplace, you should be looking for things that you can do for your people there. You’ve got no business in the workplace if you are just there to be there. You’ve got to be looking for changes you can make for the benefit of the people who are working there [ 89 ].

Unlike the previous cases, Toyota was not a startup at the time of its disruptive success and Ohno was not its founder. Ultimately, though, the combination of Onho’s leadership and revolutionary innovation transformed Toyota from being an average car maker in Japan to becoming the number one global leader.

4.9 Jack Ma, Alibaba group holding limited

In 1999, Alibaba Group, an online trading company, was established by Jack Ma, a former English teacher, in Hangzhou City, China [ 90 ]. Everything started in 1995, during a trip to the USA, when Jack Ma learned for the first time about website portals and Internet. He immediately realized that the design of portals could be a great business opportunity in the yet-unformed Chinese market, especially in the business segment. After his return to China, Ma founded China Pages, a website page developer for Chinese businesses. However, 2 years later, he closed his first company because of strong competitors such as Chinesepage [ 91 ]. For a while, Ma went back to his former job as a public servant, but then, in 1999, Ma persuaded his team at the ministry to go to Hangzhou and found the Alibaba Group [ 91 ]. Alibaba’s growth was fast. Six years later, in 2005, Alibaba attracted the attention of Yahoo!, which bought a 40 percent stake. In 2007, Alibaba.com raised US$1.7 billion dollars in its initial public offering (IPO) in Hong Kong [ 91 ].

Alibaba’s business model bets a revolutionary innovation: Ma’s belief that the small-business-to-small-business online market offered much greater opportunity than the consumer-to-consumer one, the reason being that, unlike consumers, small businesses are willing to pay a membership fee [ 91 ].

Ma’s visionary leadership is as uniquely prolific as that of Edison and Jobs. In 2003, Jack Ma created a new company, the consumer-to-consumer online marketplace Taobao (meaning Chinese in “searching for treasure”). Taobao did not charge a fee but made money from online services and advertising. By 2007, Taobao had a 67 percent market share in China and eBay sold its Chinese operations to the media consortium TOM Group.

Some quotes from Ma that also proves his talent as an inspirator and team builder are as follows: “A good boss is better than a good company”; “If we are a good team and know what we want to do, one of us can defeat ten of them”; “We never lack money. We lack people with dreams, who can die for those dreams”; “For most people, they see and believe. We believe, and then we see. For leadership, we have to see things that other people don’t see” [ 92 ].

4.10 Ma Huanteng, Tencent holdings limited

Tencent Holdings Ltd., also known as Tencent, is a Chinese multinational technology conglomerate holding company founded by Ma Huateng in 1998. Tencent is among the largest video game, social media, venture capital, and investment corporations in the world [ 93 ].

Ma Huateng studied computer science at Shenzhen University, where he earned a bachelor of science degree (1993). He then worked as a researcher for China Motion Telecom Development Ltd. before founding Tencent in 1998. In 1999, Ma’s company launched QQ service (then called OICQ), which quickly became China’s most popular instant-messaging platform. In June 2004, Tencent raised nearly US$200 million in the capital market [ 94 ]. By 2015, QQ had 850 million monthly users [ 94 ]. WeChat, a mobile instant-messaging application that was introduced in 201, soon gathered 650 million users [ 94 ]. Tencent also create Qzone, which boasted 670 million monthly users by 2015 [ 94 ].

Tencent started based on a revolutionary innovation, Internet-based QQ service. Later, the company provided users with a range of innovative “online lifestyle services.” These services included online media outlets, e-commerce outlets, gaming options, social media sites, online advertising, and an online payment option [ 94 ].

Huateng is clearly a pioneer and innovator. In terms of being inspirational and a great team builder. Once, he said:

“At Tencent, we may be businessmen, but we are still chasing our IT, our science. We are still striving to create something really cool, trying to create things we couldn’t even imagine without our new technologies. I am still clinging to this enthusiasm’ [ 95 ]. ‘For us, it is important to choose a character, super emphasis on this one. This is related to our culture. The founders like to be simple and don’t like to be politicized. Including the selection of cadres, the character is very important. The second is to look at professional ability and coordination, intelligence and so on. This is a few principles for us to select talent” [ 95 ].

An interesting quote in terms of leadership style—as a paradigm of invention versus innovation in practice—is this one:

“In America, when you bring an idea to market, you usually have several months before competition pops up, allowing you to capture significant market share. In China, you can have hundreds of competitors within the first hours of going live. Ideas are not important in China – execution is” [ 95 ].

5. Conclusions

Unlike other studies [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], the presented multi-case study focuses on a very specific business context: that of the creation of exceptionally successful firms such as Apple, Google, Facebook, or Tencent. The described multi-case study found the four attributes that define visionary leaders (creators of a positive and inspirational vision; supporters of organized learning and growth inside the organization; innovators; pioneers) in the nine studied cases. This is the first search effort that proves the link between the visionary leadership framework and firms that experienced disruptive success—unicorns.

In regard of the reasons why this type of profile is required in the studied context, one may be the fact that, in the case of disruptive innovation, nobody, even clients, may be able to forecast or imagine items such as the final functions and aspect of the products, the expected demand, and other features. Visionaries may be the only ones that can actually provide some accurate guesses, and, at the same time, put together, motivate, and guide a team in the right direction. In the future, it would be interesting to conduct more targeted research that could, both, give more details on the profile and the role of these leaders in the stated context and further describe the associated leadership attributes. Also, it would be of interest to investigate how the visionary leaders and disruptive-innovation-based environments interact with each other and why this type of leadership helps produce such outstanding results. Finally, it would also be interesting to test how other leadership frameworks fit in the same context and how the same leadership framework fits in the different ones.

• 1. Dinh JE, Lord RG, Gardner WL, Meuser JD, Liden RC, Hu J. Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives. Leadership Quarterly. 2014; 25 (1):36-62. DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005
• 2. Goethals G, Sorenson G, Burns J. Encyclopedia of Leadership. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.; 2004
• 3. Au-Yong-Oliveira M, Costa JP, Gonçalves R, Branco F. The Rise of the Unicorn: Shedding Light on the Creation of Technological Enterprises with Exponential Valuations BT Trends and Advances in Information Systems and Technologies. 2018. pp. 967-977
• 4. Burns JM. Leadership. New York: Harper & Row; 1978
• 5. Burns JM. Transforming Leadership: Pursuit of Happiness. New York, Grove Atl. Inc; 2003
• 6. Bass BM. Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press; 1985
• 7. Bass BM, Bass R. The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications. New York: Free Press; 2009
• 8. Weber M. Economy and Society. Berkeley: Univ of California Press; 1922
• 9. Schüppel F. Differences and Similarities between Charismatic and Transformational Leadership. Munich: GRIN Publishing; 2013
• 10. Conger JA, Kanungo RN. Charismatic Leadership: The Elusive Factor in Organizational Effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1988
• 11. Conger JA, Kanungo RN. Perceived behavioural attributes of charismatic leadership. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement. 1992; 24 (1):86
• 12. Conger JA, Kanungo RN, Menon ST, Mathur P. Measuring charisma: Dimensionality and validity of the Conger-Kanungo scale of charismatic leadership. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences/Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l Administration. 1997; 14 (3):290-301
• 13. Conger JA, Kanungo RN. Charismatic leadership in organizations: Perceived behavioral attributes and their measurement. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 1994; 15 (5):439-452
• 14. Schumpeter JA. The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capita I, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle. New York: Routledge; 5 Jul 2017
• 15. Covin JG, Slevin DP. The influence of organization structure on the utility of an entrepreneurial top management style. Journal of Management Studies. 1988; 25 (3):217-234
• 16. Stevenson HH. A Perspective on Entrepreneurship. Vol. 13. Boston: Harvard Business School; 1983
• 17. Gupta V, MacMillan IC, Surie G. Entrepreneurial leadership: Developing and measuring a cross-cultural construct. Journal of Business Venturing. 2004; 19 (2):241-260
• 18. Patrick M. Characteristics of visionary leadership. Chron.com, 2015. Available from: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/characteristics-visionary-leadership-31332.html. [accessed May 30, 2015]
• 19. Wang G, Oh I-S, Courtright SH, Colbert AE. Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Group & Organization Management. 2011; 36 (2):223-270. DOI: 10.1177/1059601111401017
• 20. Christensen CM. The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail. Boston: Harvard Business Press; 1997
• 21. Govindarajan V, Kopalle PK. Disruptiveness of innovations: measurement and an assessment of reliability and validity. Strategic Management Journal. 2006; 27 (2):189-199
• 22. Abadia A. The Road to Disruptive Success. In: 6th IEEE International Conference on Logistics, Informatics and Service Science. 2016. p. 7. DOI: 10.1109/LISS.2016.7854563
• 23. Rosenbloom RS, Christensen CM. Technological Discontinuities, Organizational Capabilities, and Strategic Commitments. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998
• 24. Rothaermel FT. Incumbent’s advantage through exploiting complementary assets via interfirm cooperation. Strategic Management Journal. 2001; 22 :687-699
• 25. Methe D, Swaminathan A, Mitchell W, Toyama R. The underemphasized role of diversifying entrants and industry incumbents as the sources of major innovations, Strateg. Discov. Compet. New Arenas. 1997. pp. 99-116
• 26. Macher JT, Richman BD. Organisational responses to discontinuous innovation: A case study approach. International Journal of Innovation Management. 2004; 8 (01):87-114
• 27. Ridder H-G. The theory contribution of case study research designs. Business Research. 2017; 10 (2):281-305. DOI: 10.1007/s40685-017-0045-z
• 28. Gustafsson J. Single case studies vs. multiple case studies: A comparative study. 2017. Accessed: Feb. 17, 2020. Available from: http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1064378/FULLTEXT01.pdf
• 29. Keeley L, Walters H, Pikkel R, Quinn B, MacMillan I. Global Top 100 Companies by Market Capitalisation. London: PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP; 2015
• 30. Amal M, Rocha Freitag Filho A. Internationalization of small- and medium-sized enterprises: A multi case study. European Business Review. 2010; 22 (6):608-623. DOI: 10.1108/09555341011082916
• 31. Durugbo C. Competitive product-serve systems: Lessons from a multicase study. International Journal of Production Research. 2013; 51 (19):5671-5682
• 32. Akhavan P, Pezeshkan A. Knowledge management critical failure factors: A multi-case study. VINE. 2014; 44 (1):22-41. DOI: 10.1108/VINE-08-2012-0034
• 33. Forbes. The World’s Billionaires List – Forbes. Forbes Media LLC, 2016. Available from: http://www.forbes.com/billionaires/list/ [Accessed: 13 May, 2016]
• 34. Time. The 20 Most Influential Americans of All Time. Time. 2012. Available from: http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/07/25/the-20-most-influential-americans-of-all-time/ . [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 35. Allis R. The Twelve Greatest Innovators of All Times. Borgbjergsvej: Startup Guide; 2014. Available from: http://startupguide.com/world/greatest-innovators/. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 36. Lemelson-MIT Program. Young Americans Recognize the Impact of Innovation on U.S. Economy. Lemelson-MIT Program. Boston: MIT Press; 2012. Available from: http://lemelson.mit.edu/news/young-americans-recognize-impact-innovation-us-economy. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 37. Adeyeri MK, Ayodeji SP, Akinnuli BO, Farayibi PK, Ojo OO, Adeleke K. Development of SMEs coping model for operations advancement in manufacturing technology. In: Advanced Applications in Manufacturing Enginering. Woodhead Publishing; Jan 1 2019. pp. 169-190
• 38. Levy S. Apple Inc. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Apple-Inc . [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 39. Levy S. Steve Jobs. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/biography/Steve-Jobs. [Accessed: Nov. 21, 2015]
• 40. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. Apple. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2016. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/plant/apple-fruit-and-tree. [Accessed: Aug. 01, 2017]
• 41. Story S. Apple Inc. Success Story - CEO, Founder, History. SuccessfulStory, 2015. Available from: http://successstory.com/companies/apple-inc . [Accessed: May 17, 2015]
• 42. Hoekman Jr. R. The Secret To Apple’s Long-Term Success? It Always Prepares You For The Future — Co. Design — Business + Design. Fast Company, 2011. Available from: http://www.fastcodesign.com/1665089/the-secret-to-apples-long-term-success-it-always-prepares-you-for-the-future. [Accessed: May 17, 2015]
• 43. Elgan M. Why Apple is the Most Successful Company in History—Computerworld. Needham, MA: Computerworld; 2015. Available from: http://www.computerworld.com/article/2883747/why-apple-is-the-most-successful-company-in-history.html [Accessed: May 17, 2015]
• 44. Isaacson W. Steve Jobs. New York: Simon and Schuster; 2015
• 45. Sen P. Triumph of the Nerds. The United States of America. Portland, Oregon: John Gau Productions and Oregon Public Broadcasting; 1996
• 46. Tellis GJ. Unrelenting Innovation: How to Create a Culture for Market Dominance. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2013
• 47. Kumar V, Sundarraj RP. Global Innovation and Economic Value. New Delhi: Springer India; 2018
• 48. Hosch WLH. Google. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Google-Inc. [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 49. Hosch WL. Google Inc. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2015. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Google-Inc. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 50. Steiber A. The Google Model: Managing Continuous Innovation in a Rapidly Changing World. New York: Springer; 2014
• 51. Catapano C. What is Continuous Disruptive Innovation?. Bridgesphere, 2010. Available from: http://bridgesphere.com/what-is-continuous-disruptive-innovation/. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 52. Sun L. Google and Innovation – A History. businessdictionary.com, 2016. Available from: http://www.businessdictionary.com/article/710/google-and-innovation-a-history/ . [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 53. Rutgers. Edison’s Patents. The Thomas A. Edison Papers Project. 2012. Available from: http://edison.rutgers.edu/index.htm. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 54. Adams S. Leadership Tip: Hire the Quiet Neurotic, not the Impressive Extrovert. Forbes.com. Hong Kong: Whale Media Investments; 2013. Available from: http://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2013/04/11/leadership-tip-hire-the-quiet-neurotic-not-the-impressive-extrovert/#7093139e24ea. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 55. Fujioka R. How Bill Gates, Larry Page, and Mark Zuckerberg All Thrive as Introverts. Inc.com. New York: Mansueto Ventures LLC; 2016. Available from: http://www.inc.com/russ-fujioka/how-bill-gates-larry-page-and-mark-zuckerberg-all-thrive-as-introverts.html . [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 56. Carlson N. The Untold Story Of Larry Page’s Incredible Comeback. New York: Business Insider; 2014. Available from: http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4 . [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 57. Akinyemi S. Leadership style. 2014
• 58. Elmer V. What would Larry Page do? Leadership lessons from Google’s doyen. Fortune Magazine. New York: Time Inc.; 2011. Available from: http://fortune.com/2011/04/18/what-would-larry-page-do-leadership-lessons-from-googles-doyen/. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 59. Hartmans A. Best Quotes From Larry Page, Google Cofounder and Alphabet CEO. New York: Business Insider; 2017
• 60. Larry Page Leadership Style. A detailed analysis of its positive and negative impact. 2018. Accessed: May 16, 2021. Available from: https://www.totalassignmenthelp.com/free-sample/larry-page-leadership-style
• 61. Encyclopædia Britannica. General Electric Co. (GE). London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/topic/General-Electric-Co. [Accessed: May 19, 2016]
• 62. Conot RE. Thomas Edison. London: Encyclopaedia Britannica; 2018. Available from. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Edison. [Accessed: May 18, 2021]
• 63. Essays. The History Of General Electric Company Management Essay. UK Essays; 2018. Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/management/the-history-of-general-electric-company-management-essay.php . [Accessed: Jul. 02, 2019]
• 64. Hardy Q. Google’s Innovation -And Everyone’s?. Forbes.com. Hong Kong: Whale Media Investments; 2011. Available from: http://www.forbes.com/sites/quentinhardy/2011/07/16/googles-innovation-and-everyones/#60a52aa8331a . [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 65. Walsh B. The Electrifying Edison. New York: Time Inc.; 2009. Available from: https://time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1910417_1910419_1910460,00.html. [Accessed: Apr. 20, 2018]
• 66. Zachary GP. Microsoft Corporation. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Microsoft-Corporation . [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 67. Augustyn A et al. Bill Gates. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2016. Available from: https://global.britannica.com/biography/Bill-Gates. [Accessed: May 18, 2016]
• 68. Malerba F, Nelson R, Orsenigo L, Winter S. History-friendly’models of industry evolution: The computer industry. Industrial and Corporate Change. 1999; 8 (1):3-40
• 69. Ceruzzi PE, Paul E, Aspray W. A History of Modern Computing. Boston: MIT Press; 2003
• 70. Campbell-Kelly M. Not only Microsoft: The maturing of the personal computer software industry, 1982-1995. The Business History Review. 2001; 1 :103-145
• 71. Computer History Museum. Mark Zuckerberg & Facebook - Inside Story of the World’s Fastest-growing Company 2014. Computer History Museum, Computer History Museum, 2014
• 72. Rose C. Charlie Rose - Interview With Senior Facebook Leadership Mark Zuckerberg, CEO, Sheryl Sandberg, COO. CBS. San Bruno: Google LLC; 2014. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Il507j6qojg. [Accessed: May 21, 2016]
• 73. Augustyn A et al. Mark Zuckerberg. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2016. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Zuckerberg
• 74. Hall M. Facebook. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Facebook. [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 75. Economy P. Mark Zuckerberg: 19 inspiring power quotes for success. Inc.com, Feb. 24. 2020. Available from: https://www.inc.com/peter-economy/mark-zuckerberg-19-inspiring-power-quotes-for-success.html. [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 76. Orwig SF. Amancio Ortega. London: Encyclopaedia Britannica; 2021. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Amancio-Ortega. [Accessed: May 18, 2021]
• 77. Lu C. Zara’s secret to retail success - its supply chain, tradegecko. 2014. Available from: https://www.tradegecko.com/blog/zara-supply-chain-its-secret-to-retail-success. [Accessed: May 20, 2016]
• 78. Zhelyazkov G. Agile Supply Chain: Zara’s Case Study Analysis. Vol. 1. Glasgow: Strathclyde University of Glasgow; 2011. p. 11
• 79. The Economist. The Management Style of Amancio Ortega - Behind the Mask of Zara. London: The Economist Group; 2016. Available from: https://www.economist.com/business/2016/12/17/the-management-style-of-amancio-ortega. [Accessed: Jul. 02, 2019]
• 80. Marlow B. The Humble Life of Zara Owner Amancio Ortega is to be Admired. London: Telegraph Media Group; 2015. Available from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/11656753/The-humble-life-of-Zara-owner-Amancio-Ortega-is-to-be-admired.html . [Accessed: May 20, 2016]
• 81. Novoa Ojea O. Madera de líder. Madrid: El Mundo; 2011
• 82. Reuters, The Reclusive Billionaire: Secret Life of Zara Boss Amancio Ortega and His ‘Fast Fashion’ Empire. Reuters. Sydney: The Sydney Morning Herald; 2013. Available from: http://www.executivestyle.com.au/the-reclusive-billionaire-secret-life-of-zara-boss-amancio-ortega-and-his-fast-fashion-empire-2fhne. [Accessed: May 20, 2016]
• 83. Kaizen Institute. Taiichi Ohno’s Contribution. Ellisbridge: Kaizen Institute India; 2013. Available from: https://kaizeninstituteindia.wordpress.com/2013/10/17/taiichi-ohnos-contribution/ . [Accessed: May 21, 2016]
• 84. Toyota. Taiichi Ohno. Aichi: Toyota Motor Corporation; 2004. Available from: http://www.toyota-global.com/company/toyota_traditions/quality/mar_apr_2004.html. [Accessed: May 21, 2016]
• 85. Bruce M. Piggly Wiggly: An Inspiration for the Toyota Way. Montreal: X Ray Delta; 2011. Available from: https://xray-delta.com/2011/10/12/piggly-wiggly-an-inspiration-for-the-toyota-way/. [Accessed: May 21, 2016]
• 86. Schuman M. Toyota Production System (1988), by Taiichi Ohno, Time. 2011. Available from: http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2086680_2086683_2087688,00.html . [Accessed: May 21, 2016]
• 87. Ohno T. Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production. London: Productivity Press; 1988
• 88. Maurya A. Running Lean. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly; 2012
• 89. Shimokawa K, Fujimoto T. The Birth of Lean. Cambridge, MA: Lean Enterprise Institute; 2009
• 90. Alibaba Group. History and Milestones. Hangzhou: Alibaba Group; 2021. Available from: https://www.alibabagroup.com/en/about/history. [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 91. Gregersen E. Jack Ma. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2021. Available from: https://global.britannica.com/biography/Jack-Ma. [Accessed: May 22, 2016]
• 92. Aditya S. 17 Brilliant Jack Ma quotes on leadership and success – AirTract. Airtract. 2019. Available from: https://www.airtract.com/article/18-Brilliant-Jack-Ma-Quotes-On-Leadership-And-Success. [Accessed: Jul. 02, 2019]
• 93. Peili R. A brief history of tencent holdings and its rise to the blockchain era. Crptos.com. Jul. 24, 2020. Available from: https://cryptos.com/a-brief-history-of-tencent-holdings-and-its-rise-to-the-blockchain-era/ . [Accessed: May 17, 2021]
• 94. Hollar S. Ma Huateng. London: Encyclopædia Britannica; 2016. Available from: https://global.britannica.com/biography/Ma-Huateng. [Accessed: Sep. 20, 2015]
• 95. Alizila. West Point Invites Jack Ma to Talk Leadership. Alizila. Hangzhou: Alibaba Group; 2019. Available from: https://www.alizila.com/west-point-invites-jack-ma-to-talk-leadership/. [Accessed: Jul. 02, 2019]

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Continue reading from the same book

Published: 03 May 2023

By Doris M. Dickerson

188 downloads

By Majda I. Ayoub/Al-Salim

241 downloads

By Julie Wilson

121 downloads

IntechOpen Author/Editor? To get your discount, log in .

Discounts available on purchase of multiple copies. View rates

Local taxes (VAT) are calculated in later steps, if applicable.

More From Forbes

Systems leadership case study: workplanning using systems thinking.

• Share to Facebook
• Share to Twitter
• Share to Linkedin

Thomas Lim is the Vice-Dean of Centre for Systems Leadership at SIM Academy. He is an AI+Web3 practitioner & author of Think.Coach.Thrive!

Workplanning usually involves a confluence of top-down and bottom-up approaches in many organizations. Some broad annual guidance is given by the CEO, with Finance providing a budget forecast based on historical data and the strategic imperatives for the new fiscal year. The line divisions then prepare and present a list of initiatives that purportedly contribute to these imperatives and justify their budget-ask.

This generally works in stable environments where the workplanning objectives are incremental as part of a longer five-year duration, but it may be inadequate in managing transformation efforts with the need for new systemic structures due to the merging or dissolving of functional areas within the organization.

Systems thinking provides a holistic approach to understanding and managing complex systems from the current reality to a desired outcome, making it an ideal tool for recasting workplans to enhance efficiency and effectiveness.

In the case of Client X, they aimed to leverage systems leadership practices to transform internally and propagate these practices first across its internal divisions, with the goal of taking it to the ecosystem at large. This article outlines a high-level approach to recasting the workplan using systems thinking tools, which has helped Client X align its initiatives, identify gaps and overlaps and achieve strategic objectives.

Best High-Yield Savings Accounts Of 2024

Best 5% interest savings accounts of 2024, what is systems thinking.

Systems thinking is an approach to problem-solving that views "problems" as parts of a unified whole. It involves understanding how different parts of a system interact and influence each other within the system. Unlike traditional linear thinking, systems thinking considers the broader context and the interconnections within the system and provides a systems map wherein these interactions are perceived as system-to-system, subsystem-to-subsystem or component-to-component.

In the case of Client X, adopting systems thinking means moving away from siloed operations and toward a more integrated and cohesive approach whereby a division’s work is mapped against another for synergistic outcomes. This can help the organization address complex challenges, improve decision-making and foster innovation by removing duplication and identifying implementation gaps.

Recasting The Workplan

The workplan recasting effort begins with "taking apart" the current work streams, not along the divisions’ lines of work but from an overall organizational lens. The leaders participating in this exercise have already been trained in the fundamentals of systems thinking tools. The three-day effort is about applying the systems concepts to model Client X’s journey from its current reality to its desired outcome through its articulated theory of success. The three-day session revolves around these workpieces both at the organizational level and at each strategic level:

1. Align And Select Tools/Models: Select the appropriate systems models and frameworks to guide the recasting process.

2. Apply Systems Thinking Practices: Rework existing work streams of the workplan as layers of interaction across nested hierarchies for each strategy.

3. Identify Interconnectedness: Understand how various initiatives are interconnected and the causal loops that would guide the process.

4. Identify Gaps And Overlaps: Detect any gaps and overlaps in the initiatives to optimize efforts and budgetary choices.

The specific steps that the team undertook during the three-day process included the following.

Step 1: Articulate Vision And Current Reality

Begin by clearly defining the vision and the current reality of the organization. This involves understanding the structural gap between where Client X is and where it wants to be. This step helps in identifying the key challenges and opportunities.

Step 2: Recast Workplan As A Nested Hierarchy Of Choices

Recast the workplan as a nested hierarchy of choices to ensure that decisions at every level are aligned and relevant. This helps in clarifying the strategic intent and who is responsible for what and aids in surfacing gaps and duplications, enabling better resource allocation and prioritization.

Step 3: Cluster Use Cases, And Prioritize Challenge Statements

Cluster the use cases, and prioritize the top three challenge statements that need to be addressed. This focuses the efforts on the most critical issues and ensures that resources are used effectively.

Step 4: Work On Chosen Challenge Statements

The selected challenge statements are put through using the levels of perspective "walk-up" framework to surface and test mental models for diagnosis. This helps in understanding the underlying assumptions and beliefs that drive current behaviors and outcomes.

Step 5: Create A Theory Of Success

Develop a theory of success that identifies the key levers at higher leverage for achieving the desired outcomes from key success factors. This provides a clear road map for action and helps in aligning efforts across the organization.

Step 6: Co-Create A Walk-Down Of The Levels Of Perspective

Collaborate with stakeholders to create a walk-down of the levels of perspective. This step aligns the challenge statement and diagnosis with a related growth strategy, ensuring that all efforts are coherent and strategic.

By integrating systems thinking into the recasting of its workplan, Client X was able to achieve a more cohesive, efficient and effective approach to its initiatives. The workplan was still central in execution, but it is now reinforced and streamlined for internal alignment in a way that was not possible before overlaying the systems thinking perspectives.

This approach can be extrapolated to enable other organizations to address complex challenges, optimize resource allocation and drive strategic outcomes. A coaching reinforcement can additionally be put in place to ensure that these practices are deeply embedded within the organization, leading to sustained transformation and growth.

Forbes Coaches Council is an invitation-only community for leading business and career coaches. Do I qualify?

• Editorial Standards
• Reprints & Permissions